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Greene's  Elements  of  English  Grammar. 


THE 

ELEMENTS 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR; 


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ANALYTICAL  AND  SYNTHETICAL  METHODS: 


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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

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http://www.archive.org/details/elementsofenglisOOgreerich 


THE 


ELEMENTS 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR: 


80   ARRANGED   AS   TO   COMBINE   THIS 


ANALYTICAL  AND  SYNTHETICAL  METHODS: 


WITH    AN 


INTRODUCTION    FOR   BEGINNERS, 


VARIOUS    EXERCISES,    ORAL    AND    WRITTEN, 


FORMATION,  ANALYSIS,  TRANSFORMATION,   CLASSIFICATION.   AND 
CORRECTION   OF   SENTENCES. 


BY 

SAMUEL    S.    GREENE,   A.  M., 

"KOTE3S0E    IK    THE    NORMAL    UEl'AIiTMEST,    BHOIVS    XJNI VER8ITT      AMU 
SUPERINTENDENT  OF   I'l'BLIC   SCUOOLS,  I'ROVIUEJiCE. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
H.    C  0  W  P  ERTII  WAI  T    &    CC, 


1862. 


,  according  to  Aci  of  Congress,  in  m  vs&i  A&E3.  W 
SAMUEL  8.  GREENE, 
j»  tta  Clsrk'a  Office  of  tlie  District  Court  o    <  ie&t  Imvfft  v. 


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PREFACE 


\» 


The  design  of  this  new  work  —  for  it  is  essentially  new  — 
.s  to  combine  in  one  treatise  all  the  distinguishing  features 
of  the  "  Analysis  "  and  "  The  First  Lessons."  The  depart- 
ments of  Orthography  and  Etymology  are  made  sufficiently 
full,  and  their  principles  are  illustrated  by  a  great  variety  oi 
examples.  Oral  Exercises,  Exercises  for  Parsing  and  for 
the  Correction  of  Errors,  are  introduced  in  their  appropriate 
places,  under  each  part  of  speech.  The  Syntax  contains 
all  the  essential  distinctions  found  in  the  "Analysis,"  but 
differently  arranged,  and  less  rigidly  and  technically  set  forth. 

In  the  presentation  of  a  subject  like  that  of  English  Gram- 
mar, the  first  question  which  naturally  arises  is  that  of  the 
point  of  view  from  which  it  shall  be  examined.  Shall  the 
forms  of  language  be  regarded  as  direct  results  from  thought, 
as  the  offspring  of  an  inner  impulse  ?  or  shall  they  be  looked 
upon  as  possessing  in  themselves,  regardless  of  their  origin,  all 
that  is  necessary  to  guide  to  a  successful  investigation  ?  The 
one  may  be  called  the  interior,  the  other  the  exterior,  point 
of  view.  From  th°  one  point,  language  is  regarded  as  or- 
ganized under  the  influence  of  a  vital,  life-imparting  power, 
determining  all  its  outward  forms  and  manifestations ;  while 
from  the  other  it  becomes  a  lifeless  frame,  to  be  dis- 
sected and  examined,  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  what  it 
is,  and  of  what  it  is  composed.     At  one  point,  the  learner  is 

iii 

M289986 


tV  I'iSEFACE. 

placed  in  sympathy  with  the  speaker  or  writer,  in  the  act  of 
embodying  thought,  and  is  allowed,  as  it  were,  to  inquire  why 
one  form  is  chosen  and  another  rejected ;  why  one  expression, 
better  than  another,  supplies  the  inner  demand ;  whether  a  sin- 
gle word  or  a  group  of  words  best  meets  the  want,  and  what 
the  word  or  group  shall  be  called,  not  so  much  from  its  exter- 
nal features  as  from  the  nature  of  the  idea  winch  it  denotes. 
From  the  other  point  of  view  the  learner  seeks  to  know  what 
a  word  or  expression  is  from  its  external  aspect  —  its  ter- 
mination, position,  or  from  some  auxiliary  or  other  outward 
sign.  In  one  case,  an  idea  being  given,  the  problem  with 
the  learner  is,  to  find  as  well  an  appropriate  expression  as 
to  decide  upon  the  nature  and  classification  of  the  latter.  In 
the  other  case,  an  expression  being  given,  the  problem  is  to 
determine  therefrom  its  nature  and  class.  In  the  one  case, 
expression  is  the  prominent  object  of  interest ;  in  the  other 
thought,  expression  being  regarded  only  as  the  medium  of 
its  manifestation. 

The  author  has  aimed  in  the  following  pages,  as  far  as 
possible,  to  take  the  interior  point  of  view.  He  has,  there- 
fore, required  much  to  be  written  by  the  pupil,  believing  that 
what  is  produced  by  one's  own  mind  is  best  appreciated  and 
best  analyzed.  To  this  end  also  have  the  Introduction  and 
Oral  Exercises  been  prepared.  Objects  in  the  outer  world 
first  attract  the  attention  of  the  child :  they  first  call  forth 
the  desire  to  speak  ;  they  are  ever  after  his  lexicon.  Nay, 
more :  they  give  rise  to  most  of  the  distinctions  in  language ; 
and  it  is  believed  that  an  ingenious  teacher  would,  at  the  out' 
set,  accomplish  more  in  imparting  a  knowledge  of  grammar 
during  a  single  walk  in  the  fields,  among  the  objects  of 
tint ure,  than  during  a  whole  week  devoted  to  the  abstract 
definitions  of  a  text  book.  With  children,  that  which  is 
seen  is  impressive ;  a  distinction  addressed  to  the  eye  isi 
indelibly  fixed.  The  image  or  mental  picture  arising  there- 
from is  ever  after  distinct,  awakening  the  impression  of  a 
corresponding   outward   reality.      What  is    defined  in  word? 


PREFACE.  V 

must  be  committed  to  memory,  as  the  result  of  another's 
judgment ;  what  is  seen  reaches  the  understanding  at  once, 
and  defines  itself  by  appealing  directly  to  the  discriminating 
faculty.  When  visible  objects  are  employed,  the  teacher  i; 
required  to  tell  but  little  ;  he  only  guides,  intimates,  sugges' ' . 
while  the  learner  is  observing  for  himself,  discriminate" 
for  himself,  expressing  for  himself. 

The  Introductory  Course  is  intended  to  be  wholly-  ,tium 
The  models  are  given  as  specimens  of  methods  whk' 
ers  may  adopt  to  evolve  grammatical  distinctions  *  ,d  -•  ver- 
nal objects.  As  objects,  with  all  their  varieties,  attrib-r^-s 
relations,  modifications,  and  distinctions,  first  evoked  in  the 
child  the  desire  to  speak,  so  now  they  may  be  most  fittingly 
resorted  to  as  the  interpreters  of  the  distinctions  found  in 
speech  itself.  A  child  of  six  years  already  knows  enough  to 
distinguish  the  noun,  although  he  may  not  know  one  word  of 
its  definition.  He  knows  what  an  apple  is  ;  it  is  an  object 
perfectly  familiar  to  him  ;  its  name  is  equally  so.  The  one 
he  can  touch,  taste,  handle  ;  the  other  he  can  only  speak  or 
write.  The  one  is  the  thing  itself;  the  other  its  name,  a 
mere  word,  an  object-word,  a  noun.  He  can  now  generalize, 
and  make  the  same  distinction  between  &  peach,  &  cherry,  & 
nut,  an  insect,  a  fsh,  a  bird,  or  a  quadruped,  and  its  name. 
He  finds  nouns  wherever  he  finds  objects  which  he  can  name. 
So,  again,  he  knows  the  qualities  of  objects ;  he  may  not 
know  the  meaning  of  the  word  quality,  but  he  knows  when 
an  apple  is  sweet  or  sour,  hard  or  soft,  ripe  or  unripe,  small 
or  large,  rough  or  smooth,  red  r  yellow,  good  or  bad.  He 
knows  that  no  one  of  these  designates  the  apple  itself,  but 
only  something  discovered  in  it.  It  is  only  necessary  to 
draw  his  attention  to  what  he  thus  knows,  and  make  a  skil-. 
ful  use  of  it.  The  quality  is  something  in  the  object ;  the 
word  is  something  away  from  the  object  spoken  or  written  — 
a  mere  word  —  a  quality-word  —  an  adjective.  He  knows 
when  an  object  acts  ;  he  can  tell  when  a  dog  runs  or  walks, 
growls  or  barks,  plays  or  fights  ;  and  yet  the  definition,  "  A 


71  PREFACE. 

verb  is  a  word  which  signifies  to  be,  to  do,  or  to  suffer,"  is  to 
him  wholly  incomprehensible.  It  is  easy  to  draw  his  atten- 
tion to  the  difference  between  the  action  itself  and  the  mere 
action-word  or  verb  which  represents  it.  .  In  the  same  way, 
all  the  parts  of  speech  may  be  easily  drawn  from  the  learn- 
er's own  resources.  The  teacher  thus  appeals  directly  to  the 
intelligence  of  the  learner,  and  not  to  the  authority  of  a 
definition.  By  similar  processes,  the  combination  of  words 
into  sentences  and  parts  of  sentences  may  be  easily  illus- 
trated. To  do  all  this,  and  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  more 
formal  and  technical  course,  is  the  object  of  the  Introduction. 
The  author  would  invite  attention  to  the  mode  of  pre- 
senting each  of  the  prominent  topics  in  Orthography  and 
Etymology. 

1.  An  oral  exercise,  in  which  it  is  supposed  that  the  learner 
is  about  to  enter  upon  a  new  field  of  inquiry,  is  first  given. 
In  this  nothing  is  to  be  taken  for  granted,  nothing  presented 
dogmatically.  The  pupil's  power  to  express  what  takes  place 
in  the  common  affairs  of  life  is  made  the  basis  of  those  gram- 
matical distinctions,  to  which  the  teacher  wishes  to  draw  at- 
tention. A  principle  in  language  being  thus  evolved,  the 
learner  is  called  upon  to  express  it  in  his  own  words ;  he  feels 
the  need  of  suitable  terms. 

2.  The  way  is  thus  prepared  for  the  defnitions  which  im- 
mediately follow.  They  give  expression  to  the  very  distinc- 
tions which,  in  the  oral  exercise,  the  pupil  has  learned  to 
make.  They  are  welcomed  as  exhibitions  of  his  own 
thoughts,  and  not  as  paragraphs  of  unmeaning  words,  to 
be  mastered  by  the  mere  force  of  memory.  But  the  learner 
is  not  left  here.  The  ability  to  make  a  distinction,  or  even 
to  embody  it  in  language,  does  not  always  insure  its  univer- 
sal application.     Hence, — 

3.  Copious  and  varied  exercises  immediately  follow  tho 
definitions  and  remarks.  These  are  intended  (1.)  to  tefet 
nis  ability  to  apply  the  definitions  ;  (2.)  his  ability  to  pro- 
duce illustrative  examples  ;  (3.)  his  ability  to  alter  and  adap* 


PREFACE.  Vll 

given  examples,  in  all  their  varieties  and  modifications, 
to  the  words  with  which  they  are  connected  and  (4.)  his 
ability  to  correct  erroneous  expressions. 

Two  classes  of  errors  are  given :  the  first  intended  to 
illustrate  violations  of  the  principles  under  consideration ; 
the  second,  prevailing  improprieties  of  speech,  which  the 
rules  of  grammar  may  or  may  not  correct.  These,  though 
they  may  seem  blemishes  on  the  pages  of  a  grammar,  are 
inserted  in  the  hope  that  they  may  draw  attention  to  the 
importance  of  cultivating  in  the  school  room  the  spirit  of 
generous  criticism.  It  is  the  study  of  the  language,  rather 
than  the  technical  forms  of  grammar,  that  should  claim  the 
first  attention  of  the  teacher.  It  being  his  aim  to  cultivate 
the  habit  of  speaking  and  writing  correctly,  it  is  immaterial 
whether  all  the  principles  of  criticism  are  embodied  in  a 
grammar,  or  are  drawn  from  the  known  usages  of  good 
speakers  and  good  writers.  These  and  kindred  exercises, 
if  faithfully  attended  to,  will  do  more  than  any  tiling  else  to 
eradicate  those  incorrect  expressions  which  habit  is  daily 
confirming.  If  it  should  seem  that  the  examples  are  too 
glaring  and  palpable,  it  must  be  said,  in  reply,  that  they  are 
mainly  actual  expressions  taken  from  the  lips  of  children, 
and  that  the  author  has  thought  it  best,  at  first,  to  take  the 
most  obvious  errors,  and  engage  the  attention  hy  presenting, 
not  doubtful,  but  striking  examples. 

The  Syntax  is  arranged  on  a  plan  similar  in  ts  spirit  to 
the  other  parts.  It  is  assumed  that  a  child  can  best  under- 
stand a  sentence  by  witnessing  its  formation.-     Hence,  — 

Under  the  head  of  Construction,  the  learner  commences 
with  the  foundation  of  the  sentence,  and  from  this  most  fa- 
vorable point  of  view  he  witnesses  the  progress  of  its  struc- 
ture, from  its  commencement  to  its  completion.  As  the  parts 
are  added  one  by  one,  he  notes  the  effect  of  each,  and  feels 
that  each  supplies  a  want  and  fills  a  vacancy  demanded  by 
the  unfinished  structure.  In  no  other  way  so  well  can  the 
peculiar  force  of  the  elementary  parts  be  appreciated.     Hav 


till  PREFACE. 

ing  learned  to  combine  every  form  and  c  1  dition  of  the  ele- 
ments, whether  with  their  relations  expressed  or  unexpressed, 
he  commences,  under  the  head  of  Analysis,  the  opposite 
process  of  taking  the  structure  in  pieces,  and  pointing  out  all 
the  peculiarities  of  its  parts.  Thus  by  the  two  processes  any 
child  of  ordinary  capacity  must  become  acquainted  with  the 
general  features  of  a  sentence,  whether  considered  as  a  whole, 
or  in  respect  to  its  component  parts.  The  way  is  now  pre- 
pared for  the  Rules  and  principles  which  apply  to  the  more 
minute  details  of  construction.  Various  Cautions,  intended 
to  guard  the  learner  against  prevalent  errors  in  common  con- 
versation, are  interspersed  among  the  rules.  They  are  to  be 
used  in  correcting  errors.  Under  the  head  of  Peculiarities 
and  Idioms,  a  few  of  the  anomalous  and  peculiar  expres- 
sions which  perplex  the  learner  are  collected  and  explained. 

The  author  has  thought  it  best  to  indicate  the  prominent 
idea  in  the  paragraphs  to  be  committed  to  memory  by  Italics, 
rather  than  to  insert  printed  questions.  The  teacher  can 
then  vary  the  questions  to  suit  the  wants  of  the  learner  ;  ami 
the  learner  will  follow  the  guidance  of  the  subject  rather  than 
that  of  the  questions.  The  paragraphs  in  large  type  are 
intended  as  a  first  course,  to  be  committed  to  memory  by  the 
learner.  The  Remarks  in  smaller  type  are  intended  as  a 
second  course  for  the  more  advanced  pupil.  Any  parts  of 
this  second  course  may  be  studied  or  omitted,  at  the  discre- 
tion of  the   teacher. 

The  author  takes  this  opportunity  to  acknowledge  his  in- 
debtedness to  many  friends,  mostly  teachers,  whose  sugges- 
tions and  words  of  encouragement  have  induced  him  to  pre- 
pare this  work,  in  the  hope  that  it  may  supply  such  defects 
as  were  found  in  his  other  books,  and  may  prove  a  complete 
and  convenient  text  book  on  the  subject  of  grammar. 

S.  S.  GREENE, 
Providence,  June,  1853. 


C  0  N  TENTS. 


INTRODUCTORY   COURSE. 

riii 

bBSfOM  I.  Objects, xiii 

II.  Criticism,  XT 

III.  Qualities  of  Objects, xvi 

IV.  Actions  of    Objects, xix 

V.  Ideas  and  Words,  or  Expressions  of  Ideas, xx 

VI.  Qualities  of  Actions, xxiii 

VII.  Relation  of  Objects, xxiv 

VIII.   Classification   of   Words, xxv 

IX.  Combination    of    Words, xxvi 

X.  The    Proposition xxviii 

XL  The  Proposition    enlarged, xxix 

XII.   Implied  Relations, xxxiii 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 

Definition  and  Division, *....       1 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Elementary  Sounds.  —  Oral  Exercise, 2 

Classes  of  Elementary  Sounds 2 

Table  of  Elementary  Sounds, ? 

Letters.  —  Oral  Exercise, 4 

Classes  of   Letters, 5 

Combination  of  Letters, 6 

Syllables.  —  Oral   Exercise, 8 

Words  as  the  Representatives  of  Sounds, 9 

Derivation.  —  Rules  for  Spelling, 10 

Spelling, 11 

Primitive  Words, 11 

Derivative   Words, 11 

Prefixes.  —  Rules  I.  II., » 12 

Suffixes.  —  Rules  I.  II.  III., 15 

Rules  for  the  Use  of  Capital  Letters, .* 18 


ETYMOLOGY. 

Classification   of   Words, 18 

Parts  of  Speech, , 19 


X  CONTENTS. 

Nouns, 2C 

Classes  of  Nouns 21 

Person, 22 

Number, 23 

Formation  of  the  Plural, 23 

Remarks  on  the  Number  of  Nouns, 25 

Gender 26 

Case.  —  Oral  Exercise, 28 

Declension  of  Nouns, 29 

Parsing, , 80 

Adjectives.  —  Oral  Exercise, 33 

Classes  of  Adjectives, 38 

Articles 34 

Pronominal  Adjectives, '. 35 

Numeral  Adjectives, 36 

Qualifying  Adjectives, 36 

Comparison  of  Adjectives.  —  Formation  of  the  Com- 
parative and  Superlative, 37 

P&onouns.  —  Oral  Exercises, 39 

Classes  of  Pronouns, 41 

Personal  Pronouns, 41 

Declension, 42 

Relative  Pronouns, 45 

Simple  Relatives, 40 

Compound   Relatives, 47 

Interrogative  Pronouns, 48 

Vkubs.  —  Oral  Exercise, 50 

Classes  of  Verbs, 52 

Voice.  —  Oral  Exercise, o . . .  54 

Mode.  —  Oral  Exercise, 57 

Participles, 59 

Tense.  —  Oral  Exercise, 03 

Tenses  in  all  the  Modes, 67 

Forms  of  the  Verb, 69 

Forms  for  each  Division  of  Time, 70 

Auxiliaries, 72 

Conjugation   of  Auxiliaries 73 

Formation  of  Tenses . 73 

Indicative  Mode, 73 

Potential  Mode, 70 

Subjunctive,   Imperative,  and   Infinitive, 78 

Number  and  Person  of  the  Verb, 79 

Conjugation, 79 

'Of  the  Verb  "  to  be," 80 

Of  the  Verb  "  to  love," 84 

Interrogative  and  Negative  Forms, 89 

Synopsis.  —  Progressive  Form 90 

Synopsis.  —  Emphatic   Form, 90 

Forms  for  ei  ch   Division  of    Time  combined.  — 

Verb  "  to  make," 91 

Irregular  Verbs, 92 

Defective   Verbs, ?0 

Impersonal  Verbs, 96 

Aura itBS, , ..  99 

Classes  of  Adverbs, 100 

Conjunctive  Adverbs, 101 

Comparison  of  Adverbs, 101 

Phki'ositioxs, 102 

Conjunctions v 104 

Classes  of  Connectives, 105 

fcfTEKJECTXON 108 


CONTENTS.  X 

SYNTAX. 

Oral  Exercise , ....   110 

1.     CONSTRUCTION  —  Sentence- making. 

Shot.  I.    Simple    Sentences.  —  "Words.  —  Relations     UNREP- 
RESENTED,     Ill 

A.     Subject  and  Predicate  Unmodified, Ill 

13.     Subject  Modified.  —  Oral  Exercise 112 

Various  Kinds  of  Complex  Subjects, 113 

C.  Predicate  Modified.  —  Oral  Exercise 116 

Various  Kinds  of  Complex  Predicates, 116 

D.  Subject  and  Predicate  Modified, 118 

Sacr.  II.    Simple  Sentences. —  Phrases.  —  Relations  Repre- 
sented    119 

A.  Subject  and  Predicate  not  Modified 120 

B.  Subject  Modified, 122 

C.  Predicate  Modified 124 

D.  Subject  and  Predicate  Modified 126 

Sect.  III.    Complex  Sentences. —  Clauses.  — Relations  Rep- 
resented,    127 

A.  Sentences  having  a  SuViect  and  Predicate  only,  128 

B.  Subject  Modified, 129 

C.  Predicate  Modified 131 

D.  Subject  and  Predicate  Modified 134 

Sect.  IV.    Compound  Sentences.  —  Similar  Parts  Combined,  134 

Case    I.     Coordinate  Elements, 135 

Case  II.     Coordinate  Clauses, 137 

Elements, 138 

Classes  of  Elements, 138 

Relation  of  Elements, Hi 

Entire  Sentences, 144 

Interrogative  Sentences, 144 

Transformation  of  Sentences, 145 

I.     Altered  Constructions, 145 

II.     Elements  Suppressed.  —  Ellipses, 117 

III.     Elements  Transposed, 143 

II.    ANALYSIS. 

General  Directions, 149 

Models  for  Analysis, 151 

I.  Elements  with  the  Relations   Unrepresented, 151 

II.  Sentences  with  the  Relations  Represented, 153 

III.  Complex  Sentences, 151 

IV.  Sentences  having  Coordinate  Parts, 158 

III.    RULES    FOR    CONSTRUCTION. 

Rtilbs,  Cautions,  and  Remarks, 161 

Rule  I.    Subject, 161 

II.  Attribute, 162 

III.  Pronoun, 164 

IV.  Verb, 167 

V.    Adjective, 169 


XU  CONTENTS. 

VI.     Apposition 172 

VII.     Possessives, 174 

VIII.     Objectives, 17-5 

IX.     Adverbs, 177 

X.     Interjection  and  Nominative  Independent, 179 

XI.     Coordinate  Conjunctions, 180 

XII.     Agreement  of  the  Verb  and  Pronoun, 181 

XIII.  Preposition, 182 

XIV.  Object  of  the  Preposition 183 

XV.     Subordinate  Connectives, 184 

Abridged  Propositions, ,  185 

Subject  in  the  Abridged  Expression, 187 

Predicate,  Noun,  or  Pronoun, 187 

XVI.     Infinitives, 187 

XVII.     Participles 189 


PECULIARITIES    AND     IDIOMS. 

I.  Classification  and  Uses  op  Words  and  Sentences, 131 

A.  The  Same  Word  as  Different  Parts  of  Speech, 191 

B.  The  Same  Part  of  Speech  in  Different  Relations  and  Uses,  102 

C.  The  Same  Word,   Element,  or  Sentence  in  its  Different 

Properties, 1  )4 

II.  Peculiarities  in  the  Form,  Construction,  and  Applica- 

tion of  Words, l'J7 

Figures  of  Etymology, 107 

Figures  of  Syntax, 198 

Figures  of    Rhetoric, 20C 

III.  Idiomatic  Constructions, 202 

IV.  Structure  of  Sentences, 205 


PUNCTUATION. 

I     Points  used  within   a   Sentence, 207 

Comma, 207 

Colon  and  Semicolon, 210 

Dash  and  Parenthesis, 211 

II.    Points  used  at  the  Close  of  a  Sentence, 212 

Per  od, 212 

In'  :rrogation  Point, 212 

Exdamation  Point 212 

Other  Marks  used  in  Writing, 213 


PROSODY. 

Definition, 215 

Verse, 215 

Feet, 215 

Scanning, 216 

Iambic  Verse, 216 

Trochaic  Verse, 218 

Anapaestic  Verse, ....  218 

Dactylic  Verse, 219 

Poetic  Pauses 219 


INTRODUCTORY  COURSE  FOR  BEGINNERS. 

LESSON    I. 

OBJECTS. 

The  world  in  which  we  live  is  full  of  objects,  as  trees 
tirubs,  flowers,  grass,  rocks,  stones,  metals,  houses,  barns 
t  alleys,  rivers,  brooks,  springs,  oceans,  seas,  lakes,  ponds 
oxen,  horses,  sheep,  birds,  insects,  reptiles,  mountains,  hills 
pools ;  in  all,  a  multitude  so  great  that  one  could  not  count 
them  in  a  lifetime. 

Lessons  on  objects  may  be  conducted  after  the  following 

MODEL.* 

Teacher.  (Pointing  to  the  object.)     What  is  this  ? 

Pupils.  .  (In  concert  or  separately.)    The  platform. 

Teacher.  Now,  write  upon  your  slates  near  the  top,  Names  of  objects 
(The  teacher  does  the  same  on  the  blackboard.)  Under  this, 
write  Platform,  commencing  it  with  a  capital  letter,  and  placing 
a  period  (.)  after  it.     Now,  which  is  the  object  ? 

Pupils.  .  (All  point  to  the  platform.) 

Teacher.  Which  is  the  name  of  the  object  ? 


*  Directions  to  the  Teacher.—  1.  Let  the  class  be  so  arranged  that  each  mem- 
ber can  see  the  object  pointed  out.  2.  Ask,  while  pointing  lo  it,"  What  in  this  ?  " 
3.  When  the  pupil  has  named  it,  write  the  name  distinctly  on  the  board.  4.  Let  each 
point  out,  first  the  object,  and  then  its  name,  on  the  board  5.  Follow  some  order  m 
the  selection  of  objects,  such  as  size,  similarity,  or  location.  6.  At  first,  let  each  exer- 
cise be  written  by  every  pupil.  7,  After  the  few  first  lessons,  let  some  member  of  tlio 
class  point  out  the  objects,  enjoining  on  him  the  observance  of  order.  8.  At  length, 
let  each  member  silently  select  for  himself  a  given  number  of  objects.  9.  In  review- 
ing, let  each  scholar  give  in  turn,  orally,  the  names  of  objects  in  the  room,  taking 
care  that  no  object  shall  be  repeated.  10.  Should  the  teacher  find  (as  he  undoubtedly 
will)  th  U  the  children  have  either  no  names,  or  incorrect,  or  perverted  names  tor  com- 
mon objects,  let  the  correct  name  be  given.  11.  Encourage  the  habit  of  observation 
and  the  spirit  of  inquiry  respecting  all  common  objects.  12.  Continue  the  exercise  till 
ail  the  objects  in  the  school  room  are  exhausted  ;  then  take  objects  out  of  the  room. 
13.  When  entire  objects  have  been  examined  sufficiently,  commence  analyzi»g  objects, 
and  pointing  out  their  parts.  Lach  part  is  an  object.  14.  The  term  object-word  may 
gradually  be  displaced  by  the  word  noun.  15.  At  first,  let  the  attention  be  drawn  mora 
forcibly  to  the  object  than  to  the  name  ;  but  at  length  let  the  name,  as  an  object-word. 
a  noun-,  become  the  more  prominent.  16.  Letthe  exercises  be  multiplied  and  varied 
by  the  teacher,  till  the  object  of  the  true  basis  of  distinct"  n  is  secured 

h  xtv 


XIV  INTRODUCTORY     COURSE. 

Pupils      All  point  to  the  blackboard  or  their  slates,  (thus  showing  tha 

they  know  the  distinction.) 
Teacher.  (Pointing  to  the  iirst  object  at  the  end  of  the  platform,  so  as  to 

proceed  in  order.)     What  is  this  ? 
Pupils.  .  Bookcase. 
Teacher    Write  the  word  bookcase  under  Platform,  placing  the  first  letter 

directly  under  the  first  letter  of  that  word.      Now,  since  plat 

form  and  bookcase  are  names  of  objects,  what  shall  we  call  :hcse 

words  ? 
Pupils.  .  (All  hesitate. ) 

Teacher.  May  we  not  call  them,  object-words  f 
Pupils.  .  (All  give  assent.) 

The  lesson,  when  carried  to  six  objects,  —  quite  enough  for  the  first,  — 
will  stand  thus  :  — 

NAMES  OF  OBJECTS. 


&c 


Q3eo4. 


The  same  lesson  may  be  written  in  lines  so  as  to  form  a  paragraph. 
The  first  word  should  begin  with  a  capital,  the  rest  (unless  some  are  proper 
names)  with  small  letters  ;  a  comma  should  separate  the  words  ;  a  period 
should  be  placed  at  the  end.  Each  pupil  should  be  made  to  feel  responsi- 
ble for  a  strict  observance  of  all  these-  rules  of  criticism.  Neglect  now  will 
be  likely  to  result  in  neglect  through  life.     The  lesson  will  stand  thus :  — 

Names  op  Oiwects.  Platform,  bookcase,  chair,  settee,  desk,  George, 
Dox,  table,  umbrella,  &c.,  &c. 


EXERCISES. 

I.  (1.)  What  articles  are  made  by  a  jeweller,  a  tailor,  a  milliner,  a  car- 
penter, a  cabinet  maker,  an  upholsterer,  an  optician,  a  blacksmith  ?  What 
do  you  call  each  NAME  that  you  have  given?  Why?  (2.)  What  articles  do  toe 
use  for  food,  drink,  clothing,  building,  sewing,  knitting,  hunting,  fishing, 
cooking?  What  do  you  call  each  word  that  you  have  used?  Why?  (3.) 
What  articles  may  be  found  in  a  parlor,  a  dining  room,  kitchen,^  closet, 
girden,  church,  hardware  store,  paper  mill,  grist  mill,  printing  office,  dry 
g  >ods  store?  What  do  you  call  each  name?  Why?  (4.)  What  are  tho 
namps  of  the  various  trees,  plants,  shrubs,  flowers,  fishes,  reptiles,  birds, 
domestic  animals,  nuts,  fruits  ?  What  do  you  call  each  word  that  you 
have  used?     Why  ? 

II.  (1.)  Menhon  all  the  parts  of  this  room;  of  the  door,  of  the  window 
the  stove,  the  tabic,  a  chair,  a  phi,  a  book,  a  watch,  a  portfolio,  a  ship,  a 


liNTKuuucTUK*     UOETB8J5.  Y 

wnting  desk.  (2.)  Of  a  hat,  a  coat,  a  bonnet,  an  apron  a  dress,  a  boot,  a 
Blocking.  (3.)  Of  a  wagon,  a  harness,  ahorse,  a  whip,  a  p  bugh,  a  scythe,  a 
boat,  a  barn,  a  wheel,  a  steam  engine.  What  do  you  call  each  word  which 
you  have  used t   Why  f 

III.  (1.)  What  do  you  call  the  following  words:  Pen,  wafer,  card,  coal, 
flour,  paper,  pencil,  thermometer,  eye,  hair,  nose,  mouth,  teeth,  tongue, 
ear,  chin,  cheek,  lip,  eyelid  ? 


LESSON    II. 

CRITICISM* 

In  writing  exercises  upon  the  slate  or  paper,  the  pupil 
should  be  careful,  (1.)  to  select  his  objects  in  an  orderly 
manner;  (2.)  to  spell  correctly;  (3.)  to  use  capitals  cor- 
rectly ;  (4.)  to  write  legibly  and  neatly,  that  is,  to  observe 
uniformity  in  the  size  of  the  letters,  to  be  careful  to  cross 
the  t's,  dot  the  i's,  and  to  preserve  a  horizontal  di  ection  of 
the  lines  ;  (5.)  to  punctuate  correctly. 

MODEL  FOR  CORRECTION. 

names  of  objects. 

floar 

Desk 
Beiling 

Winder 
inks 

*a 
nd 

The  teacher,  having  transferred  some  faulty  exercise  like  the  above  from  the  Mete 
of  a  pupil,  calls  the  attention  of  the  class  to  it  in  the  following  manner :  — 

Teacher.  How  many  of  you  see  any  thing  wrong  in  this  ? 
Pupils.  .  (All  hands  are  raised.  Ea«?h  is  eager  to  speak.) 
Teacher.  (Naming  a  pupil.)     Mention  one  error. 

Pupil.   .  The  heading  begins  with  a  small  letter,  and  has  no  lines  drawn 
under  it.f 


*  Directions  to  the  Teacher.  —  1.  Let  the  teacher  at  first  examine  each  writ- 
ten exercise  carefully.  2.  Mark  and  draw  attention  to  each  minute  error.  3.  En- 
courage the  members  cf  the  class  to  criticise  each  other — always  in  (he  spirit  of 
kindness.  4.  Let  the  scholar  exchange  slates,  and  correct  each  other's  errors.  5 
Let  li>is  habit  of  criticism  be  extended  to  all  written  and  oral  exercises,  especially 
when  the  pupils  begin  to  combine  words. 

*  See  note  p.  xvii. 


XVI  INTRODUCTORY     CoUnSE. 

Teacher.  (Naming  auotner.)     What  else  is  -wrong  ? 

Pupil.   .  The  objects  are  selected  without  order. 

Teacher.  What  else  ? 

Pupil.   .  The  words  floor,  ceiling,  and  window  are  misspelled. 

Teacher.   Is  any  thing  else  wrong  ? 

Pupil.   .  The  words  floor,  ceiling,  and  inkstand  begin  with  small  letters 

Teacher.   Who  can  see  any  other  error  ? 

Pupil.    .  There  are  no  periods  at  the  end  of  the  words. 

TeacJter.    (Having  corrected  the  errors  as  they  have  been  pointed  out) 

Does  any  one  discover  another  error  ? 
Pupil.   .  The  words  are  written  in  a  disorderly  manner. 

Let  such  exercises  be  repeated,  as  often  as  may  be  necessary,  to  estab- 
lish habits  of  care  and  critical  examination  of  every  written  exercise 
When  children  are  trained  to  habits  of  accuracy,  neatness,  and  precision, 
tfcwy  will  know  no  other. 


LESSON    III. 

QUALITIES   OE   OBJECTS.* 

If  we  hold  a  piece  of  glass  before  our  eyes,  we  can  see 
through  it ;  but  if  we  hold  a  slate  in  the  same  manner,  we 
cannot  see  through  it.  We  say  of  the  glass,  because  we  cat 
see  through  it,  it  is  transparent ;  and  of  the  slate,  because 
\yq  cannot  see  through  it,  it  is  opaque.     Neither  transparent 

*  Directions  to  the  Teacher.  —  1.  In  writing,  at  first  let  the  class  use  the  full 
term,  as  in  the  first  model :  "  Tlie  sponge  is  opaque,"  "  The  sponge  is  flexible,"  &c. 
Af  era  little  time  they  may  use  either  of  the  contracted  forms.  2.  As  this  exercise 
wi  1  be  found  exceedingly  suggestive,  the  teacher  should  first  show  that  the  word  is 
cal  ( J  a  quality-word,  (adjective,)  because  it  denotes  a  quality,  and  is  on  that  account 
to  be  distinguished  from  an  object-word,  (noun.)  He  should  then  aim  to  awaken  in  the 
child  an  appreciation  of  the  uses  which  we  make  of  objects  in  ths  arts  on  account  oi 
their  qualities  ;  show  also  how  we  classify,  compare,  contrast,  measure,  weigh,  &.•:.,  &c 
3.  When  it  is  wished  to  illustrate  some  quality,  as  adhesive,  brittle,  aromatic,  some  ob 
ject  is  brought  in,  which  contains  it,  and  by  an  appropriate  experiment  the  child's  atten- 
tion is  fastened  upon  it  4.  Whenever  a  quality  cannot  be  made  to  appear  directly,  the 
opposite  should  be  exhibited  by  way  of  contrast,  and  the  attention  of  the  pupil  should 
be  directed  to  the  prefixes  employed,  as  elastic,  inelastic,  flexible,  inflexible,  sound,  ;/■••  . 
sound,  ripe,  unripe.  5.  But  in  all  this,  let  it  be  the  teacher's  ultimate  aim  to  make  the 
distinction  between  the  adjective  and  noun.  fi.  When  the  pupil  has  become  sufficiently 
acquainted  with  qualities,  let  him  write  the  name  of  the  quality  and  the  name  of  the 
object  together,  thus:  "Porous  sponge;"  "  White  paper ; "  "  Qreen  corn."  Also 
lot  him  explain  the  effect  of  the  quality-word  upon  the  object-word.  7.  He  will  now 
t>e  prepared  to  show  the  effect  of  such  words  as  the,  tfii<,  that,  one,  two,  three,  &c, 
which  do  not  express  quality,  but  yet  produce  certain  effects  upon  an  object-word  ;  as, 
'  Three  books ; "  "This  hat ; "  "  Every  boy."  8.  Let  the  learner  now  be  told  that  the 
term  adjective  applies  to  all  the  words  which  may  be  added  to  a  noun,  whether  they  de- 
note qua'i.yornot.  9.  When  objects  are  compared,  let  them  be  placed  side  by  side  in 
the  presence  of  the  class  ;  when  classified,  let  the  objects  actually  oe  selected  accord- 
ing to  some  q>  **Jity,  as  white,  red,  transparent  &c. 


1MTUOJJUCTORY     COUKSJi.  AVil 

nor  opaque  is  any  thing  apart  from  the  object.  We  cannot 
see  transparent,  nor  take  it  in  our  hands  as  a  thing,  or  a  part 
of  a  thing.  It  is  what  we  discover  in  the  glass.  It  i»  an 
attribute  of  the  glass,  which  we  call  a  quality. 

MODEL. 
Qualities  of  a  sponge. 

Teacher.  (The  teacher  takes  a  piece  of  dry  *ponge  in  his  hand,  and  hclds 
it  up  before  the  class.)     What  is  this  ? 

Pupils.  .   A  piece  of  sponge. 

Teacher.  Write  "  Qualities  of  the  sponge  "  on  your  slates.  (Then 
holding  it  to  his  eye,  he  attempts  to  see  through  it.)  What  can 
you  say  of  the  spongf  ? 

Pupils.  .  It  is  opaque. 

Teacher.  Now  write  upon  your  slates,  "The  sponge  is  opaque;"  com- 
mencing  the  expression  with  a  capital  letter,  placing  a  period  at 
the  end,  and  drawing  a  line  under  "opaque,"  thus,  opaque* 
(The  teacher  writes  upon  the  board  at  the  same  time,  as  a  model 
for  the  class.) 

Pupils.  .  (All  write  upon  their  slates.) 

Teacher.  Now,  where  is  the  quality  ? 

Pupils.  .  (All  point  to  the  sponge.) 

Teacher.  Where  is  the  word  which  names  or  denotes  it. 

Pupils.  .  (All  point  to  their  slates  or  to  the  blackboard,  thus  distinguish- 
ing between  the  word  and  the  quality.) 

Teacher.  Now,  which  is  the  object  ? 

Pupils.  .  (All  point  to  the  sponge.) 

Teacher.  And  where  is  the  quality  opaque  ? 

Pupils.  .  (All  point  to  the  sponge  again.) 

Teacher.  But  is  the  sponge  both  the  object  and  the  quality  ? 

Pupils.  .  Sponge  is  the  object,  and  the  quality  is  found  in  the  sponge. 
(Thus  a  distinction  is  made  between  an  object  and  its  qtialities.) 

Teacher.  (The  teacher  bends  the  sponge.)  What  can  you  say  of  the 
sponge  because  it  bends  ? 

Pupils.  .  It  is  limber. 

Teacher.  Yes,  it  is  limber.     Who  can  give  a  better  word  ? 

Pupils.  .  (No  one  speaks.) 

Teacher.  When  any  thing  bends,  we  say  it  is  flexible.  Pronounce  the  word, 
and  write,  "  The  sponge  is  flexible." 

Pupils.  .  (All  speak  the  word,  and  then  write  as  directed.) 

Teacher.  (The  teacher  now  removes  the  pressure  from -the  sponge,  and  it 
suddenly  returns  to  its  original  form.  He  experiments  with  a 
piece  of  lead  or  wax  in  the  same  way,  and  shows  that  neither 


*  The  pupil  should  now  be  told  that,  in  writing,  a  word  is  especially  distinguished 
by  drawing  a  lino  under  it ;  in  printing,  by  using  the  Italic  letter;  in  speaking,  by 
placing  stress  of  voice  upon  it.  Readings  n.ro  distinguished  by  drawing  two  lines 
under  them. 


XV111  INTRODUCTORY     COURSE. 

returns  fn  its  former  state  after  the  pressure  .s  removed.)     Wha-i 
can  you  say  of  the  sponge  because  it  romes  ^ack  to  its  origins] 
form.  ? 
Pupils.  .  It  is  springy. 

Teacher.  Who  can  give  another  and  a  better  word  ? 
Pupils.  .  One  pupil  raises  his  hand,  and  says,  elastic. 
Teacher.  Right ;  all  may  say  elastic,  and  then  write,  "  The  sponge  is  can- 
tic."     Now,  since  the  words  opaque,  flexible,  and  elastic  are  ap- 
plied to  qualities,  and  not  to  objects,  what  shall  we  call  them  ? 
Ptqrils.  .  Quality-words. 

Teacher  Right;  what  kind  of  words  then  are  porous,  absorbent,  light, 
moist  f 
The  lesson,  extended  to  rive  qualities,  — quite  sufficient  for  the  first,  — 
will  s'.and,  — 

The  sponge  is  opaque. 
The  sponge  inflexible. 
The  sponge  is  elastic. 
The  sponge  is  porous. 
The  sponge  is  absorbent. 
Or  thus  :  — 

(  opaque. 

flexible. 

The  sponge  is  <   elastic. 

I  porous. 

[  absorbent. 

Or  thus  :  The  sponge  is  opaque,  flexible,  elastic,  porous,  and  absorbent. 


EXERCISES. 

I  What  qualities  has  a  piece  of  India  rubber,  chalk,  whalebone,  wax, 
paper,  lead,  pine  wood,  silk,  broadcloth  ?  What  do  you  call  each  word  you 
have  used  ?  Why  1  Write  out  each  example  as  in  the  model.  In  the  exam- 
ples, tell  which  is  the  object-word,  and  which  the  quality-word. 

II.  In  the  same  manner,  mention  the  qualities  of  an  apple,  an  orange,  a 
piece  of  glass,  a  feather,  a  watch  spring,  a  piece  of  granite,  velvet,  ivory, 
leather,  charcoal,  fur.     What  kind  of  words  have  you  used  ?     Whyt 

III.  Mention  fire  objects  that  are  white,  and  thus  classify  them  ;  five 
that  are  green ;  five  that  arc  yelloio  ;  five  that  are  transparent ;  five  that  are 
opaque  ;  five  that  are  porous,  &c. 

IV.  Mention  four  objects  that  are  soft,  also  four  that  are  hard,  and  thus 
contrast  them  ;  four  that  are  warm,  and  four  that  are  cold;  four  that  are 
flexible,  and  four  that  are  inflexible  ;  four  that  are  elastic,  and  four  that  are 
inelastic;  four  that  are  sweet,  and  four  that  are  sour,  &c.  In  Exercises 
I J  I.  IV.,  what  words  have  you  used  — object-words,  or  quality-words  f 

V.  Mention  two  objects  that  are  equally  long,  short,  smooth,  fair,  old, 
white,  «"//  thus  compare  them;  aho  two,  one  of  which  is  longer,  shorter, 
smoother,  See,  than  the  other;  also  several  objects,  one  of  which  is  longest, 
shortest,  See,. 

VI.  How  many  fingers  have  you?  How  many  boohs,  slates,  knives,  ap- 
ples, &c.  and  thus  number  themf  What  are  the  words  which  you  have 
used?     Why  do  you  call  them  adjectives  f 

VII.  Tell  which  of  the  following  words  are  nouns,  and  which  adjectives 
and  thus  classify  them  :  ink,  black,  coal,  white,  paper,  carpet,  soft  young, 
istove,  red.  pencil,  smooth,  sharp,  dull,  steel,  iron,  hot,  cold,  book,  bottle, 
♦r.od.  wafer. 


INTRODUCTORY     COURSE. 


LESSON    IV. 

ACTIONS    OF  OBJECTS* 

Among  the  m'llions  of  objects  which  we  see,  ail  those 
that  are  alive  have  the  power  to  move  or  act,  and  are 
classed  as  animate  ;  some  others,  as  water,  clouds,  clocks, 
watches,  &c,  move  when  acted  upon.  All  these  move, 
ments  are  called  actions.  Thus  a  dog  runs  a  biid  Jlies. 
Now,  runs  or  files  is  not  any  thing  apart  from  the  object , 
(see  M  Qualities  of  Objects ; ")  it  is  only  an  attribute,  which 
we  call  an  action,  just  as  we  called  another  kind  of  attri- 
bute a  quality. 

MODEL. 

Teacher  (The  teacher  says,  Look  yonder  I)     What  is  that  ? 

Pupils.     (All  answer.)    A  dog. 

Teacher.  What  does  he  do  ? 

Pupils.  .  He  bites. 

Teacher.  And  what  do  you  see  him  do  now  ? 

Pupils.  .  He  barks. 

Teacher.  And  what  now  ? 

Pupils.  .  He  groiols. 

Teacher.  And  what  now  ? 

Pupils.  .  He  eats. 

Teacher.  And  what  now  ? 

Pupils.  .  He  drinks.       m 

Teacher.  Now  write  upon  your  slates  "The  actions  of  a  dog ;  "  and  under- 
neath this  heading  write,  "  The  dog  bites ;  "  and  underneath  that, 
"  The  dog  barks."    Now,  where  is  the  action  ? 

Pupils.  .  (All  point  to  the  dog.) 

Teacher.  Where  is  the  word  which  expresses  the  action    ? 

Pupils.  .  (All  point  to  their  slates,  or  the  blackboard.) 

Teacher.  Now,  which  is  the  object  ? 


*  Directions  to  the  Teacher. —  1.  At  first  it  will  be  well  for  the  teacher  to  per- 
form some  act  himself,  as  renting,  walking,  or  speaking.  2.  Let  him  next  suppose 
some  object  to  move  ;  as  njish,  a  bird,  an  insect,  and  let  the  pupils  be  required  to  write 
any  actions  of  which  it  is  capable.  3.  Let  the  full  form  at  first  be  used  ;  as,  "  The  dog 
bites  t "  "  The  do«  barks,"  Sec  ;  afterwards  employ  the  contracted  forms.  4.  As  an 
oral  exercise,  think  of  some  animal,  and  let  each  child,  in  turn,  give  one  action  of 
which  it  is  capable.  5.  When  the  children  have  become  sufficiently  familiar  witU 
the  distinction,  the  word  verb  maybe  substituted  for  action-word.  6.  When  the  pu- 
pils have  advanced  sufficiently  far  to  see  that  some  words  are  called  Vttrba  which  do 
not  express  actions,  they  are  prepared  for  a  lesson  like  the  Oral  Exercise,  on  p.  50. 
7.  In  all  the  exercises  careful  1)  observe  the  rules  of  criticism. 


XX  INTRODUCTORY     COURSE. 

Pupils.  .  (All  point  to  the  dog. 
Teacher.  And  where  is  the  actioi.  ? 
Pupils.  .  (All  point  to  the  dog.) 

Teacher.  But  is  the  dog  both  the  object  and  the  action 
Pupils     The  dog  is  the  object,  and  the  action  is  seen  in  the  dog,  or  ist 
performed  by  him. 

(Thus  a  distinction  is  made  between  an  action  and  a  word,  and 
between  an  action  and  an  object.) 
Teacher.  Now,  since  the  words  bites,  barks,  groioh,  &c,  are  applied  to  ac- 
tions, and  not  to  objects  themselves,  what  shall  we  call  theue 
words  ? 
Pupils.  .  Action-ioords. 
The  lesson,  extended  to  five  actions,  -will  stand  thus  :  — 
The  dog  bites. 
The  dog  barks. 
The  dog  groicls. 
The  dog  eats. 
The  dog  drinks 
Or  thus:  — 

( bites, 
barlcs. 
The  dog  <  growls, 

eats. 
(  drinks. 
Or  thus :  — The  dog  bites,  barks,  groinls,  eats,  drink? 


.      EXERCISES. 

I.  What  actions  can  be  performed  by  a  horse,  a  man,  a  child,  a  trout,  a 
robin,  a  toad,  a  grasshopper,  a  cricket,  a  soldier,  a  sailor,  a  shoemaker,  a 
firmer,  a  musician  ?     What  toords  have  you  employed  f     Why  f 

II.  What  objects  can  sing,  run,  play,  whistle,  sleep,  fly,  write,  study, 
ride,  walk,  swim,  float,  sink,  burn,  freeze,  melt,  thaw  ?  What  words  have 
you  used?     Why? 

III.  Tell  ichich  of  the  following  words  are  nouns,  which  arc'adjectives , 
which  are  action-words,  or  verbs  :  Ship,  mast,  white,  prow,  ploughs,  moves, 
sinks,  boat,  writes,  shines,  son,  moon,  drive,  map,  blows,  buttons,  sews, 
Uexible,  plane,  plain. 


LESSON    V. 

IDEAS  AND  WORDS,  OR  EXPRESSIONS  OE  IDEAS. 

When  an  object,  as  a  hat,  is  placed  before  us,  we  say  we 
see  it ;  but  when  it  is  removed,  and  we  continue  to  think  of 
it,  or  call  it  to  mind  after  thinking  of  something  else,  we  say 
wv  seem  to  see  it.     It  is  as  though  the  mind  had  an  eye,  and 


INTRODUCTORY     COURSE  XX 

could  see  son.  ithing  just  like  the  real  hat  It  appear?  \u  be 
in  the  same  place,  it  has  the  same  form,  t  is  in  every  way 
just  like  it,  only  it  may  not  be  as  distinct.  That  which  we 
«eem  to  see  is  to  the  eye  of  the  mind  what  the  real'  hat  is  to 
that  of  the  body.  It  is  a  kind  of  image  or  picture  of  the 
real  hat,  and  is  called  an  idea. 

EXERCISE. 

I.  Now,  suppose  yourselves  at  home  by  the  fireside.  Think  of  all  the  ob- 
jects in  the  room,  until  you  aet  distinct  pictures  of  them.  Let  them  seem 
to  you  just  as  if  you  were  there ;  then  write  their  names  in  order,  as  you 
would  do  if  you  were  there,  or  as  you  did  in  Lesson  I.  Now,  suppose  your 
selves  in  a  garden,  a  barn,  a  street,  afield,  a  church,  a  mill,  on  a  mountain, 
in  the  open  air  in  a  clear  night,  in  a  meadow,  at  sea,  in  a  forest,  and  do  the 
same. 

II.  Mention  any  qualities  of  the  objects  which  yoti  seem  to  see  in  them. 

III.  Mention  any  actions  which  you  seem  to  see  any  of  them  perform. 

But  when  we  have  formed  definite  ideas  of  objects,  we 
need  some  way  to  inform  others  what  we  have  in  our  minds. 
When  an  object,  as  a  dog,  is  before  our  eyes,  we  can  point  to 
it,  and  without  saying  a  word,  show  to  others  what  we  wish 
them  to  see.  But  when  we  have  only  the  idea,  or  picture 
before  the  eye  of  the  mind,  however  distinct  and  impressive. 
that  may  be  to  us,  we  cannot  show  it  to  others.  It  can  be 
seen  only  by  our  mental  eye.  In  that  case  we  must  resort 
to  signs,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  following 

MODEL. 

Teacher.  I  have  a  distinct  picture,  or  image,  of  a  beautiful  object  before 
my  mind's  eye.  I  seem  to  see  its  form  and  colors.  Do  you 
see  it  ? 

Pupils.  .  We  do  not  know  what  it  is. 

Teacher.  (The  teacher  takes  from  his  desk  a  rose,  and  holds  it  up  before 
the  class,  then  places  it  back  in  the  desk.)  How  many  now 
know  what  it  is  ? 

Pupils.  .  (All  raise  their  hands.) 

Poacher  Now,  I  will  give  you  a  signal,  and  let  us  see,  when  I  give  it  here- 
after, if  you  cannot  call  up  the  picture  of  the  rose,  so  that  all  or 
us  may  be  thinking  of  the  same  thing. 

(The  teacher  now  gives  some  signal,  as  a  motion  of  the  hand, 
snapping  the  fingers,  or  touching  the  table,  to  which  all  agree  as 
a  signal  to  call  to  mind  the  rose,  and,  after  turning  the  thoughts 


XX11  INTRODUCTORY     BOURSE. 

of  the  class  upon  something  else,  for  a  few  moments,  he  sudden 
ly  introduces  the  signal.)     What  do  you  think  of  now  ? 

Ptipils  .  The  rose. 

Teacher.  Now,  though  you  cannot  see  the  picture  of  the  rose  in  my  mind, 
you  have  one  in  your  own.  And  the  signal  tells  you  just  when 
to  call  it  up.  Now,  I  have  another  beautiful  picture  in  my  mind 
Do  you  know  what  it  is  ? 

Pupils.  .  "We  cannot  tell  without  a  signal. 

Teacher.  I  will  give  you  a  signal.  (Here  the  teacher  introduces  a  new  sig- 
nal, such  as  snapping  his  fingers  twice,  or  making  some  new  mo- 
tion without  any  previous  warning,  and  asks,)  What  new  picture 
have  you  now  in  your  minds  ? 

Picpils.  .  (All  hesitate ;  finally  one  says,)  We  cannot  tell  what  the  signal 
means. 

Teacher.  Why  can  you  not  tell  what  the  signal  means  now,  as  well  as 
before  ? 

Piqrils.  .  Because  we  did  not  understand  beforehand  what  it  was  to  be 
the  signal  of. 

Teacher.  Then,  in  order  to  make  a  signal  good,  there  must  be  a  mutual 
understanding  among  those  who  use  it;  and  then  any  outward 
sign  may  enable  us  to  call  up  our  ideas.  We  must,  therefore, 
have  a  sign  for  a  house,  a  sign  for  the  tun,  a  sign  for  the  moon, 
and  a  sign  for  every  other  object  around  us.  Would  such  signs 
as  I  have  given  be  good  for  every  object  ? 

Pupils.  .  We  could  not  make  signs  enough  with  our  fingers  for  every 
object.  (Here  let  the  class  give  such  thoughts  as  they  may  have 
about  these  signs.) 

Teache)'.  Instead  of  a  motion  of  the  hand,  or  a  rap  upon  the  table,  if  I 
should  make  a  sound  from  my  mouth,  would  that  be  a  signal  ? 

Pupils.     It  would,  if  we  all  agree  to  it 

Teacher  (The  teacher  makes  some  sound  from  the  mouth,  for  the  rose.) 
How  many  will  take  this  as  a  sign  for  the  rose  ? 

Pupils.      (All  raise  their  hands.) 

Twcke*  ('the  teacher  experiments  with,  this  new  signal  as  before,  then 
says,)  If,  instead  of  this,  I  should  give  you  the  sound  r-o-s-e,  as  a 
sign,  I  should  give  you  the  one  to  which  not  only  this  school,  but 
all  the  people  who  speak  the  English  language,  have  agreed. 
Or,  if  I  should  write  on  the  blackboard  thus,  rose,  these  marks 
would  be  the  signal  to  which  all  who  can  read  the  English  lan- 
guage have  agreed.  These  signs  are  called  words  ;  and  when  they 
apply  to  objects,  they  arc  object-words,  or  names  of  objects.  Now, 
when  1  point  to  the  objects  in  the  school  room,  you  may  give  me 
the  object- word*,  or  names  of  the  objects.  (The  teacher  points 
out  various  objects,  and  the  pupils  give  their  names;  then  reverses 
the  exercise,  he  giving  the  name,  and  they  pointing  to  the  object. 
Finally,  he  gives  the  names  of  objects  not  present,  asking  the 
pupils  to  call  to  mind  the  idea  of  each,  and  raise  their  hands  to 
show  that  they  are  thinking  of  it. 


INTRODUCTORY    COURSfc  Xi  11 

Qs feral  Remj  rk  o-»  Ideas. — The  ingenuity  of  the  teatfi«s,  will  generally  Rug 
rest  the  best  methods?  of  testing  the  correctness  of  a  child's  conceptions.  Perhaps  the 
b'  st  general  rule  is  for  the  teacher,  first  of  all,  to  imagine  the  object  present,  <>r  him- 
self in  its  presence,  arid  hid  the  pupil  do  the  same.  Let  it  he  recalled,  not  as  a  mere 
something  known  to  exist,  but  as  an  object  having  form,  proportion,  color,  position, 
and  dimensions;  and  let  all  these  attributes  he  made  to  correspond  with  the  rectify. 
Then,  assuming  that  the  pupil  has  done  the  same,  proceed  to  question  him  minutely, 
as  if  the  object  were  present.  What  is  it?  What  is  near  to  it  ?  What  is  its  general 
form?  What  is  it  like  ?  On  what  does  it  stand  or  rest?  Of  what  materials  i«  it 
composed  ?  How  Ion?,  how  thick,  how  wide  is  it?  What  is  its  color,  weight,  and 
hulk  ?  Of  what  pacts  is  it  composed  ?  Does  the  sin  shine  upon  it  ?  If  so,  on  which 
side  is  its  shadow  ?     What  time  in  the  day  is  it,  then  ?     What  surrounds  it  ?  &.c. 

Let  the  pupil  answer  directly  from  the  ideas  in  his  own  mind,  and  his  answers  will 
usually  reveal  the  correctness  or  incorrectness  of  these  ideas.  This  practice  of  sean  h- 
ing  after  the  pupil's  id  us,  more  than  any  thing  else,  evinces  the  teacher's  skill  and 
power  over  the  mental  habits  of  his  pupils.  It  should  now  be  extended  to  every  thing. 
The  lessons  in  reading,  geography,  arithmetic,  &.c,  should  he  enlivened  by  it.  The  aim 
of  the  teacher  should  be  to  make  every  thing  in  the  school  room  real,  earnest,  practical, 
and  lifcli/c  ,  by  awakening  an  interest  in  ideas  rather  than  words.  The  principal  de- 
sign in  introducing  ■jh'trct  lessons  is  to  give  m'eater  life  and  reality  to  ideas.  Let  the 
pupil  then  conceive  his  ideas  of  absent  objects  as  though  there  was  a  corresponding 
reality  which  he  had  just  seen.  When  this  can  be  done,  lessons  on  objects  may  be 
dropped.  When  it  cannot  be  done,  the  object  should  be  referred  to  at  any  and  Bveiy 
stage  of  progress 


LESSON    VI.*      -  .  » 

QUALITIES   OF    ACTIONS. 

In  Lesson  II.  it  was  seen  that  objects  possessed  certain 
qualities,  as  smooth,  rough,  gentle  ;  it  will  now  be  seen  that 
actions,  or  even  qualities  of  objects,  may  themselves  possess 
qualities,  as  will  be  shown  in  the  following 

MODEL. 

Teacher   (The   teacher,    calling   the  attention  of  the  class,   says,)    How 

many  see  my  hand  move  ? 
Pupils.  .-(All  raise  their  hands  in  token  of  assent.) 
Teacher.  (Moving  his  hand  very  slowly,  he  says,)  How  docs  it  move  ? 
Pupils.  .  Slowly.  £ 

Teacher.  What  slowly,  hand  or  moves? 
Pupils.  .  Moves. 

Teacher.  What  then  does  slowly  express  a  quality  of? 
Pupils.  .  The  action  moves. 
Teacher.  Now  write  upon  your  slates,  "  Qualities  of  Actions  ;  "  and  under 

it  write,  "  The  hand  moves  slowly." 


*  Directions  to  the  Teacher,  —  1.  At  first  it  will  be  well  to  direct  the  attention 
of  the  learner,  as  in  the  model,  only  to  adverbs  of  quality  of  manner.  2.  Let  him  thea 
see  that  words  added  to  verbs  showing  when,  inhere,  why,  are  also  adverbs.  3.  Keep 
up  l he  habit  of  criticism.  4.  Let  all  the  previous  lessons  lie  reviewed.  5.  Give  fre- 
quent examples  in  whic  i  the  parts  of  speech  si,  it  be  mingled,  <>.  Let  the  pupils 
write  short  sentences  containing  adverbs,  or  words  answering  the  questions,  How? 
When?  Where?  &c.  7.  Do  not  advance  too  rapidly,  and  be  careful  to  secure  every 
point  as  you  advance.  8.  It  will  be  well  t:>  give  a  subject  and  verb,  and  require  the 
class  to  add  any  thing,  whether  a  word  or  a  grt  lp  of  words,  that  will  express  ihe  time, 
place,  or  manner  of  the  act. 


XXIV  INTRODUCTORY     COURSE. 

Pttpils.  .  (All  write.) 

Teaclier.  (Moving  his  hand  quickly,  he  says,)  How  does  my  hand  move  now? 

Pupils.  .  Quickly. 

Teacher.  Now  write  on  your  slates,  "The  hand  moves  quickly." 

Pttpils.    (All  write.) 

Teacher.  Now,  since  quickly  and  slowly  donote  the  quality  of  an  actiob, 

and  not  the  action  itself,  what  shall  we  call  them"? 
Pttpils.  .  Action -quality-words. 
Teacher.  Right ;  and  hence  we  hav®  a  new  class  of  words,  called  action- 

quality-words,  or  adverbs. 

EXERCISES. 

I.  How  can  a  bird  fly?  a  horse  run  ?  a  Jish  swim  t    How  does  the  sun 
ihinet  the  ship  sail  f  the  farmer  labor  f  the  carpenter  build  t  the  boy  study  f 

II.  Which  of  the  following  words  are  adverbs  1  which  nouns?  which 
verbs  t  and  which  adjectives  t 

t  Nail,  hammer,  pleasantly,  heaps,  thaw,  elm,  grows,  rapidlv,  renews,  at- 
tractive, sweetly,  fiercely,  temptation,  points^"  hopefully,  otter,  beaver, 
weasel,  musingly,  weaves,  hopes,  point,  lace,  diamonds,  wears,  nervously, 
meaningly. 


LESSON    VII. 

RELATION   OF    OBJECTS. 

When  two  objects  are  in  any  way  connected,  or  when  an 

object  is  connected  with  an  attribute  of  another,  they  are 

related,  or  there  is  a  relation  between  tfijuri.     What  these 

relations  are  will  be  best  seen  by  the  fofl»ying  lesson  :  — 

Teacher.  (The  teacher  takes  a  book  and  a  piece  of  paper,  and  places  the 
latter  on  the  former.)     "Where  is  the  paper  ? 

Pupils.  .  On  the  book. 

Teacher.  (Placing  it  under  the  book.)     "Where  is  the  paper  now  ? 

Pupils.  .  Under  the  book.  « 

Teacher.  (Placing  the  paper  in  the  book.)  Has  the  paper  changed  its  re- 
lation t  * 

Pupils.  .  It  has  ;  it  is  in  the  book. 

Teacher.  (The  teacher  now  changes  the  position  of  the  paper,  so  as  to  place 
it  over,  above,  below,  beside,  near,  &c,  and  then  he  moves  it  from 
the  book.)     What  is  the  relation,  of  its  motion  to  the  book  ? 

Pupils  .  It  moves  from  the  book. 

Teacher.  (The  paper  approaches  the  book.)  What  is  the  relation  of  the 
motion  to  the  book  ? 

Pupils.  .  It  moves  towards  the  book. 

*  Using  a  word  while  acting  out  its  application  is  the  best  possible  definition 
Children  thus  learn  the  matting  of  words  even  before  they  can  sp-sih 


INTRODUCTORY     COURSE.  XX* 

Teacher.  What  shall  we  call  such  words  as  on,  wider,  in,  &c,  sirce  they 

q     show  a  relation  t 
Pupils.  .  Relation-words. 

In  this  way  the  various  relations  of  one  object  to  another,  or  of  an  ob- 
ject to  an  attribute  of  another,  may  be  illustrated  to  the  eye,  so  as  to  be 
impressed  upon  the  mind. 

The  teacher  may  now  place  two  objects  upon  a  book,  a  piece  of  paper 
and  a  pen.  Now,  what  are  on  the  book  ?  The  answer  is,  The  paper  a»wi 
the  pen.  Here  is  a  new  relation-ioord,  used  to  combine  ox  join  two  objects 
in  the  same  relation  to  the  book.  He  places  the  book  behind  him,  and 
takes  olF  cne  of  the  objects,  assuring  them  that  one  object  is  on  the  book. 
What  can  you  say  now  is  on  the  book  ?  The  answer  is,  The  paper  or  the 
pen.  The  teacher  asks,  Which  ?  Some  one  guesses  the  paper ;  he  pre- 
sents the  book  with  the  pen  on  it,  and  says,  Not  the  paper,  but  the  pc-n. 
And,  or,  and  but  are  combination-words. 

EXERCISES. 

Now  point  out  the  relation- words  in  the  following  expressions,  at 
whether  two  objects  are  related,  br  an  object  and  an  attribute  :  The  hoi 
the  hill;  the  dog  in  the  manger ;  the  slipper  under  the  table;  runn&ig  to 
school.;  living  by  a  river  ;  standi?ig  beside  a  well ;  a  dog  and  a  fox  running 
over  a  wall ;  a  needle  or  a  pin  in  a  cushion. 


LESSON   VIII. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  WORDS. 
We  have  seen  that  some  words  are  used  to  name  objects^ 
some  to  denote  qualities  of  objects,  some  the  actions  of  ob- 
jects, some  the  qualities  of  attributes,  (that  is,  actions  or 
qualities,)  some  the  relation  of  objects,  and  some  the  com- 
bination of  objects.  We  may  now  take  these  characteristic:? 
vsee  Lesson  III.,  Exercise  III.,  p.  xviii.,)  as  the  basis  for 
grouping  these  words  into  classes,  thus :  — 

Words  denoting  objects =    object-ioords       —  Nouns. 

Words  denoting  qualities  of  objects  =    quality-words     =  Adjectives. 
Words  denoting  actions  of  objects  =      action-words     =  Verbs. 
Words  denoting  quality  of  attri-  )      (      attribute-      }       \-n.-n^-nr>c 

butes    ......     .     .      \-\quality-icords  $- Adverbs. 

Words  denoting  relation  of  objects  =    relation<oords    =  Prepositions. 
Words  denoting  combination  of  )      S  combination-  )_  Conjunction- 

objects )      I        words         ) 

Words  denoting  emotion  *  .    .       as    emotion-words    =  Interjections. 

*  The  interjection  has  not  been  illustrated  like  the  other  classes,  for  the  obvioas 
e&eon  that  it  denotes  neither  an  object,  attribute,  nor  relation,  but  simply  a  sudden 
(motion  or  feeling  of  the  speaker.  Its  use  and  characteristics  can  easily  be  illustrat- 
ed in  a  way  similar  to  the  others.  Let  the  teacher  show  what  would  be  a  natural 
exclamation  when  joyous,  sad,  in  pain,  or  when  sudden  fear  comes  over  us. 
-Let  the  pupil  now  know  that  words  thus  classified  are  called  yartt  of  speech, 
C 


INTRODUCTORY    COURSE. 


EXERCISES. 


L  Select  t/ie  nouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs  in  the  fotlottmuj .  The  &* 
draics  the  caH.  The  birds  sing  a  charming  song.  The  fierce  wind  pent 
trates  the  cottage  of  the  peasant. 

II.  Select  the  adverbs,  prepositions,  and  conjunctions  in  thefol 
hiving :  The  day  passed  pleasantly  away.  The  cup  stood  on  the  table- 
John  and  James  have  just  arrived.  The  toind  blew  gently  over  the  f  eld. 
The  moon  and  stars  shine  beautifidly  upon  the  lake. 

III.  Select  the  nouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  adverbs,  prepositions, 
conjunctions,  and  interjections,  from  paragraphs  in  your  reading 
Iq'son. 

IV.  Take  an  object,  as  an  apple,  and  illustrate,  by  means  of  it,  a  noun 
an  aqjective,  a  verb,  an  adverb, und,  in  connection ukth  some  other  object,  fa* 
a  knife,)  a  preposition,  and  a  conjunction. 


LESSON    IX. 
COMBINATION  OF  WORDS. 

An  object  is  always  intimately  related  to  its  own  attributes, 
since  the  latter  are  always  found  in  the  former.  Hence  the 
words  which  represent  an  object  and  one  «of  its  attributes 
may  be  combined  to  show  this  relation,  as  may  be  seen  by 
the  following 

MODEL. 

Teacher.  Suppose  two  birds,  one  black  and  the  other  white,  were  standing 

upon  a  tree,  and  you  wish  to  distinguish  one  of  them  from  th« 

other ;  how  could  you  show  which  one  you  mean  ?  . 

■Pupils.  .  By  saying,  The  black  bird,  or  white  bird. 
Teacher.  Right ;  and  you  would  place  the  object,  bird,  and  its  own  quality 

black  or  white,  in  relation  to  each  other  by  combining  the  word* 

which  represent  each.     Is  there  any  word  to  show  their  relation  ? 
Pupils.  .  There  is  none. 
Teacher.  Now,  suppose  I  do  not  know  the  color  of  the  bird  and  you  wish 

to  tell  me  its  color.     What  would  you  say  ? 
Pvpils.  .  We  should  say,  The  bird  is  black;  cr,  The  bird  is  white. 
Teacher.  Right ;  and  you  would,  again,  place  the  object,  bird,  and  its  own 

quality,  black  or  white,  in  relation  to  each  other.     Would  they  be 

in  the  same  order  as  before  ? 
Pupils.  .  They  would  not.    Then,  the  quality-word  was  placed  before  the 

object- word ;  now,  it  is  placed  after  it. 
Teacher.  Does  any  thing  show  the  relation  between  them  ? 
Pupils.  .  Is  shows  or  tells  that  the  quality  black  belongs  to  the  bird. 
Teachei .  Now,  suppose  two  birds  are  alike,  but  one  is  stand'oig  upon  a 

tree,  and  the  other  flying  around  it.    How  could  you  distiiiguuS 

the  latter  ? 


INTRODUCTORY     COURSE.  XXVU 

Pupils.  .  We  would  say,  The  flying  bird. 

Teacher.  You  *ould  place  the  object,  bird,  and  its  own  action,  flying,  in 

relation  to  each  other.    Is  there  any  word  to  show  their  relation  ? 
Pupils.  .  There  is  none. 
Teacher .  But  suppose  I  did  not  know  what  the  bird  was  doing ;  how  would 

you  tell  me  ? 
Pupils.  .  We  should  say,  The  bird  is  flying. 
Teacher.  So  you  would,  again,  place  the  object,  bird,  and  its  action,  flyir, q 

in  relation  to  each  other.     Would  they  be  in  the  same  order  a« 

before  ? 
Pupils. .  They  would  not.    The  action  is  now  mentioned  after  the  object 

Then,  it  was  mentioned  before  it. 
Teacher.  Is  there  any  word  to  show  the  relation  between  them  ? 
Pupils.  .  The  same  word  is  says  that  the  action  was  performed  by  the  bird. 
Teacher.  Suppose,  again,  that  there  were  two  persons  having  the  same 

name  George,  the  one  a  carpenter,  and  the  other  a  farmer.     How 

could  we  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other. 
Pupils.  .  We  i  o aid  say,  George  the  carpenter. 
Teacher.  You  vould  place  the  name  George  and  the  name  indicating  his 

occupation  in  relation  to  each  other.    Is  there  any  word  to  show 

the  relation? 
Pupils.  .  Then  ta  none. 
Teacher.  Now.  suppose  I  did  not  know  his  occupation,  and  you  were  to 

tell  me     How  would  you  do  it  ? 
Pupils.  .  We  should  say,  George  is  a  carpenter. 
Teaeher.  Yon  vould,  again,  place  the  two  names  in  relation  to  each  other, 

and.  js  before,  you  would  place  is  between  them  to  shoto  or  tell 

the  occupation.     When  we  wish  to  connect  an  object  with  one  of 

its  owii  attributes,  what  two  different  states  of  mind  may  we 

represent  ? 
Pupils.  .  We  may  distinguish  one  object  from  another,  or  we  may  say 

sometmng  of  an  object. 
Teacher.  Rigb!     now  review  Lesson  III.,  and  then  perform  the  following 

examples :  — 

EXERCISES. 

I.  Give  the  qualities  of  sealing  wax,  an  apple,  salt,  whalebone,  ivory,  gold, 
the  dew,  a  brook,  a  tree. 

II.  Give  f.hi   actions  of  a  bee,  a  serpent,  a  scholar,  a  robin,  a  toad,  a 
sparrow,  a  gotu 

III.  Give  some  word  to  express  the  occupation,  character,  or  office  of 
Washington,  Webster,  Columbus,  Arnold. 

IV.  Distin  -5UISH  any  of  the  objects  in  (I.)  by  some  quality  ;  in  (I£.  1 
by  some  action  ,  in  (III.)  by  some  office,  occupation,  or  character. 

V.  Tell  oi  declare  the  qualities*  of  the  objects  in  (I.),  the  action  in 
(II.),  the  office   fee,  in  (III.) 


*  Direction:?  *n  the  Teacher.  —  1.  It  may  now  be  said  to  the  learner,  that  when 
we  distinguish  UK  object  by  its  quality,  action,  or  office,  it  is  supposed  that  all  know 
that  by  which  we  iJius  distinguish  it ;  the  quality,  or  action,  &c,  is  then  assumed  to  be- 
long to  the  object  but  when  we  say  or  tell  what  belongs  to  the  object,  wo  then  affirm, 
declare,  or  PR»n  -.rE  what  before"  was  assumed.  Thus,  in  the  expression  "  White 
now,"  white  is  wwuofld  ;  but  in  the  expression  "  The  snow  is  ichite."  the  same  <iualitv 


XXV111  INTRODUCTORY     COURSE. 

VI.  As  the  teacher  exhibits  the  qualities  of  glass ,  first  assume,  and  then 
predicate  them  singly. 

VII.  Take  any  two  qualities ;  assume  one,  and  predicate  the  other.  Then 
reverse  the  order,  assuming  the  predicated,  and  predicating  the  asstimed 
quality. 

VIII.  Assume  any  two,  and  predicate  any  two;  as,  The  smooth,  thin 
glass  is  brittle  and  transparent.  Reverse  the  order ;  assume  one,  arid  jrreai- 
catethe  rest.  Predicate  one,  and  assume  the  others.  Assume  all;  predi- 
cate aU 


LESSON    X 

THE  PROPOSITON 

When  an  attribute  is  predicated  of  an  object  to  which  it  be- 
longs,—  as,  "  Gold  is  yellow,"  —  the  group  of  words  is  called 
a  proposition  ;  but  when  the  attribute  is  assumed,  as,  "  Yel- 
low gold,"  the  group  is  not  a  proposition.  The  object  is 
then  said  to  be  restricted ,  limited,  or  distinguished. 

EXERCISES. 

I.  Take  some  attribute  of  the  following  objects,  and  form  propositions  . 
Grass,  cherries,  lilies,  vapor,  horses,  rabbits,  butterflies,  ice,  Solomon, 
Abraham. 

II.  Tell  which  of  the  folloxcing  expressions  are  propositions,  and  ichich 
are  not :  The  sun  is  shining.  The  winds  are  blowing.  Growing  tree. 
The  water  flows.  i°eter  the  Hermit.  David  was  king.  Isaiah  prophesied. 
An  heroic  general 

111  Add  to  or  change  the  folloxcing  words  between  the  periods  so  as  to 
form  propositions  :  Weather  cold.  Grass  grow.  Hen  cackle.  Solon  wise 
man.  He  live.  Nut  fall.  Ice  melt.  River  flow.  Bridges  breaks.  Boy 
drown  He  cry.  Helen  poor.  Report  heard.  Apples  decays.  Melon 
grow. 

IV.  Change  or  vary  the  proposition,  "  The  bird  flies,"  so  as  to  show  thai 
more  than  one  bird  performed  the  act  —  that  the  act  teas  performed  yester- 
day —  that  the  act  is  to  take  place  to-morrow  —  tell  which  words  you 
hare  changed. 

Is  predicated.  2.  Let  the  teacher  take,  in  the  presence  of  the  class,  some  object,  as 
a  piece  of  sponge,  glass,  or  paper,  and  develop,  as  in  Lesson  III.,  its  qualities,  and 
let  the  pupils  assume  and  then  predicate  each  quality;  thus,  "  Soft  sponge.  The 
tponge  is  soft."  3.  Multiply  examples,  if  necessary  >  till  the  distinction  between  predi- 
cating and  assuming  shall  lie  understood. 


INTRODUCTORY    COURSE. 


LESSON    XI. 

THE  PROPOSITION  ENLARGED 
In  lesson  X.  the  proposition  contains  but  two  parts  —  r  .A 
which  contains  the  attribute,  called  the  subject,  and  the  at- 
tribute itself,  which  is  affirmed  of  the  subject,  and  hence 
called  the  predicate.  When  the  subject  is  not  an  individual 
name,  or  when  the  predicate  does  not  represent  some  par- 
ticular  act,  it  is  necessary  to  add  words  to  each,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  explaining  or  individualizing  them- 

MODEL, 
(1.)  N  King  died." 
(2.)  "  The  king  died." 
(3.)  "  The  good  king  died." 
(4.)  "  The  good  king  Edward  VI.  died." 

'5.)  "  The  good  king  Edward  VI.,  the  son  of  Henry  VIII.,  died." 
v6.)  "  The  good  king  Edward  VI.,  son  of  Henry  VIII.,  died  in  th* 

sixteenth  year  of  his  age." 
(7.)  "  The  good  king  Edward  VI.,  the  son  of  Henry  VIII.,  died  in  the 

sixteenth  year  of  his  age,  and  the  seventh  year  of  his  reign." 

The  effect  of  individualizing  an  object  may  be  seen  from 
the  following 

MODEL. 

Teacher.  If  each  object  in  the  universe  had  a  distinct  and  separate  name, 

how  many  names  should  we  have  ? 
Pupils.  .  "We  could  not  count  them ;  there  would  je  as  many  names  as 

objects. 
Teacher.  If  you  could  not  count  them,  could  you  ever  commit  them  to 

memory  ? 
Pupils.  .  Never  ;  for  there  would  be  as  many  different  names  as  there  are 

different  trees,  quadrupeds,  birds,  fishes,  &c.     We  could  not  count 

all  the  individual  fishes  in  a  lifetime. 
Teacher.  If  every  individual  object  had  an  individual  name,  how  could  we 

distinguish  one  object  from  another  ? 
Pupils.  .  Simply  by  giving  its  name. 
Teacher.  True  ;  not  only  each  man  would  have  a  name,  but  each  tree,  dog, 

horse,  fish,  &c.,  &c. ;  and  the  mention  of  that  name  would  draw 

the  attention  to  one  object,  and  exclude  all  others.     But  since 

we  cannot  give  individual  names  to  all  objects,  what  shall  we  do  i 
Pupils.  .  (Probably  none  will  answer.) 
Teacher  Here  is  an  object  which  we  call  a  ;»n,  ~ud  a  ere  is  another  object 

like  it  •  what  shall  we  call  this  ? 


K.XX 


rSTRODUCTORY     COURSE,, 


Pupils.  . 
Teacher. 
Piqrils.  . 
Teacher. 

Pupils.  . 
Teacher. 


Pupils.  . 
Teacher. 

Piqrils.  . 
Teacher. 

Pupils.  . 
Teacher. 

Piipils.  . 
Teacher. 


Pupils.  . 
Teacher. 

Pupils.  . 
Teacher. 
Pupils.  . 
Teacher. 
Pupils.  . 
Teacher. 


Pupils.  . 
Teacher. 

Pupil.   . 

Teacher. 


Pupils.  . 
Teacher. 


Pupils.  . 
Teacher  ■ 

Pupils.  . 


We  call  that  a  pen,  too. 

Very  well ;  now,  if  I  say  pen,  can  you  tell  which  one  I  mea$ 
"We  cannot ;  for  we  think  of  one  as  well  as  the  other. 
Now,  suppose  one  is  a  metallic  pen,  and  the  other  is  a  quill  pen*, 
how  could  you  point  me  to  the  individual  pen  which  you  mean  ? 
By  saying,  metallic  pen. 

Right ;  and  metallic  pen  would  be  just  as  good  as  an  individual 
name ;  in  other  words,  metallic  would  help  you  to  individualize 
the  pen  by  excluding  the  other.      But  suppose  I  should  present 
you  another  object  like  these  two  ;  what  would  you  call  that  ? 
We  should  call  that  in,  pen. 

Now,  suppose  this  new  one  to  be  a  metallic  pen  ;  how  could  ycu 
individualize  it  ? 
We  would  say  metallic  pen. 

Yes  ;  but  you  have  two  metallic  pens,  (the  teacher  holding  them 
up.)    Which  one  do  you  mean  ? 
The  small  pen. 

Yes ;  but  the  quill  pen  is  a  small  one,  as  you  see,  (the  teacher 
holding  it  up.) 

We  mean  "  the  small  metallic  pen." 

Very  good ;  and  small  metallic  pen  is  just  as  good  as  an  individ- 
ual name.      It  distinguishes  the  pen  you  mean  from  the  oth^r 
two.    But  suppose  ail  the  pens  in  the  world  Avere  to  be  pre- 
sented to  you,  one  at  a  time,  what  would  you  call  each  ? 
A  pen. 

Then  suppose  there  were  many  millions  of  them ;  would  their 
each  have  a  name  ? 
They  would. 

Would  they  each  have  an  individual  name  ? 
They  would  not. 

Would  they  each  have  a  different  name  ? 
They  Avould  not ;  each  would  have  the  same  name. 
They  would  have  one  name  in  common ;  hence  called  a  common 
name  to  distinguish  it  from  an  individual  or  proper  name.     But 
do  no  objects  have  individual  names  ?    Can  you  mention  one  ? 
(One  speaks.)     Is  not  George  an  individual  name  ? 
Why  do  you  think  so  ? 

I  notice  when  you  say  "boy,"  all  the  boys  in  school  look  up  as 
though  you  called  them  all ;  but  when  you  say  "  George,"  we  all 
know  what  one  you  mean. 

Right ;  George  is  a  proper  name ;  so,  you  see,  he  has  two  names 
—  a  proper  name,  George,  and  a  common  name,  boy.    If  I  use  the 
common  name,  how  can  I  show  whom  I  mean  ? 
By  individualizing  him. 

Right ;  so  I  might  say,  "  That  small  black-eved  boy,  who  sits  in 
the  corner  of  the  room,  near  the  door ;  "  or  1  might  say  George. 
Which  would  you  prefer  ? 
We  should  prefer  George. 

But  most  objects  have  only  common  names;  how  can  we  point 
out  individuals  among  such  objects  ? 
Only  oy  individualizing  them. 


INTRODUCTORY     30URSE.  XXX! 

fcacher.  Now,  all  words,  and  groups  of  words,  whether  they  denote  quali- 
ty or  not,  when  used  to  individualize  an  object,  (not  an  attribute,) 
are  called  adjective.  Hence  "that"  "small,"  "black-eyed,1 
'*  who  sits  in  the  corner,  near  the  door,"  are  all  adjective  expres- 
sions. 


EXERCISES. 

I.  Tell  what  individual  name  is  the  same  as  the  following  general 
names  individualized :  The  man  who  crossed  the  Atlantic,  and  discovered 
the  new  world.  The  man  who  commanded  the  American  army,  defeated 
the  British  forces,  and  was  styled  the  father  of  his  country. 

II.  Use  a  general  name,  and  so  individualize  it,  that  it  may  designate. 
Lafayette,  Franklin,  or  Peter  the  Great. 

III.  Many  common  names,  as  tree,  cloud,  house,  insect,  fish,  have  no  cor~ 
responding  individual  name.  Take  any  ten  of  these,  and  so  limit  them  that 
each  will  denote  an  individual. 

The  effect  of  individualizing  or  limiting  an  action  may  be 
seen  from  the  following 

.     MODEL. 

Teacher.  In  the  expression,  "  The  bird  moves  through  the  air,"  what  one 

word  can  be  substituted  for  those  in  Italics  t 
Pupils.  .  Flies. 
Teacher.  Then  flies  =  moves  through  the  air.     Will  you  add  something  to 

limit  the  action  in  the  following  example,  "  The  horse  ran "  t 

Show  how  he  ran. 
Pupils.  .  The  horse  ran  sloicly. 

Teacher.  Now,  add  something  to  show  when  the  horse  ran. 
Pupils.  .  The  horse  ran  in  the  morning. 

Teacher.  What  does  the  expression  "  in  the  morning  "  exclude  ? 
Pupils.  .  It  excludes  any  running  which  took  place  at  night,  at  noon,  of 

any  other  time  than  morning. 
Teacher.  Will  you  add  something  to  show  where  the  horse  ran  ? 
Pupils.  .  The  horse  ran  in  the  street. 
Teacher.  Will  you  add  something  to  limit  the  verb  in  the  example,  "  The 

boy  opened''"!  Show  what  he  opened. 
Pupils.  ,  (Individually.)     1st.  The  boy   opened  his  knife.     2d.  The  boy 

opened  his  eyes.     3d.  The  boy  opened  the  door.    4th.  The  boy 

opened  a  book. 
Teacher.  Add  something  to  show  why  he  opened  it. 
Pupils.    The  boy  opened  the  book  to  read. 
Tcacfier.  Now,  how  many  different  kinds  of  questions  have  you  answered 

by  adding  these  words  ?     See  if  you  can  recall  them. 
Pupils  .  ( Separately.)      1st.   We  answered  the  question  how  ?    2d.    We 

answered  the  question  when!    3d.  We  answered  the  question 

where?     4th.  We  answered  the  question   what?    f>th     We  an 

swered  the  question  why  ? 


fc-XXll  INTRODUCTORY     COURSE. 


EXERCISES. 


I.  Put  the  following  words  into  propositions;  then  enlarge  them  by  lim- 
iting their  subjects  :  — 

Trees  beautiful.  Cloud  disappear.  Vapor  rise.  Dog  bark  Wind 
piercing.  Water  flow.  Flowers  bloom.  Ice  melt.  King  reign.  Ape 
climb.  Vulture  tear.  Boy  boisterous.  Child  gentle.  Serpent  crawl. 
Frog  hop.     Bee  buzz. 

II.  Make  propositions  of  the  following,  and  enlargi  them  by  completing 
the  meaning  of  the  verb : — 

Boy  buy,  (what.)  Bee  eat.  Storm  have  broken.  Dogs  have  devour.  In- 
sect destroy.  Eagle  see.  Lady  find.  Ink  stain.  Man  see.  Washing- 
•  >n  defeat.    Arnold  betray.     Hawk  catch.     Mouse  destroy. 

Thus,  The  boy  bought  a  pencil. 

III.  Tell  when  the  folloioing  events  happened :  — 

Columbus  discovered  America,  (when.)  The  Pilgrims  reached  New 
England.  Charlestown  was  burned.  The  people  walked.  The  sun  rises.* 
The  moon  sets.*  The  dew  disappears.  Twilight  commences.  The  storm 
abated.         i 

IV.  Tell  where  the  following  happened :  — 

The  British  were  defeated,  (where.)  Moses  was  concealed.  Jesus  was 
crucified.  Congress  was  assembled.  Webster  died.  Washington  was 
buried.  The  stranger  stopped.  The  army  encamped.  The  Pilgrims  land- 
ed.    The  old  worn-out  soldier  slept. 

V.  Tell  how  the  following  happened :  — 

The  dog  was  killed,  (how.)  The  fire  was  kindled.  The  pupil  wrote  his 
copy.    The  cars  move.     Harriet  plays.     The  horses  ran.     The  water  falls. 

VI.  Tell  why  the  following  happened :  — 

My  father  has  kindled  a  fire,  (why.)  Children  go  to  school.  The  mer- 
chant buys  goods.  The  mother  sings  to  her  chlid.  The  messenger  came. 
The  wall  is  made  around  the  garden. 

VII.  Limit  the  subjects  and  predicates  of  the  following,  in  any  of  ike 
above  ways :  — 

Winter  has  come.  The  ducks  Avere  swimming.  The  tree  fell.  The  mice 
gnawed.  The  weeds  were  removed.  The  fountain  failed .  The  street  was 
crowded.    The  lecture  was  delivered.    The  coachman  drove. 

VIII.  Point  out  the  subjects,  predicates,  and  limiting  parts  in  the  last 
exercise. 

IX.  Tell  all  the  nouns,  adjectives,  or  adjective  expressions,  adverbs,  or 
adverbial  expressions,  prepositions,  and  conjunctions  in  the  last  exercise. 

X.  Make  propositions  of  your  own,  and  limit  them  as  above,  telling 
what  part  of  speech  each  word  is. 

*  Let  the  pupils  ascertain  the  time  of  rising  and  setting  for  the  day  when  the  lets- 
vm  k  given  out. 


INTRODUCTORY     COURSE.  XXXUI 

LESSON    XII. 

IMPLIED    RELATONS. 

We  have  seen  how  one  object  may  be  related  to  another 
object,  or  to  the  attributes  of  another  object ;  also,  how  an 
object  may  be  related  to  its  own  attributes.  We  are  now  tc 
show  how  an  object  and  an  attribute  —  that  is,  how  a  prop- 
osition —  is  related  to  him  who  speaks  it  or  writes  it.  There 
must  be  three  parties.  1st.  Some  one  must  speak.  2d. 
Some  one  must  be  spoken  to.  3d.  Some  person,  or  some 
thing,  must  be  spoken  of. 

MODEL. 

Teacher.  When  Joseph  said  to  his  brethren,  "  Does  my  father  yet  live  ? * 
■who  was  the  first  party  ? 

Pupils.  .  Joseph. 

Teacher.  And  who  was  the  second  ? 

Pupils.  .  His  brethren. 

Teacher.  Right ;  who  was  the  third  ? 

Pupils.  .  His  father. 

Teacher.  Very  well ;  and  when  he  said,  "  I  am  Joseph,"  who  was  the 
speaker  or  first  party  ? 

Pupils.  .  Joseph. 

Teacher.  Right ;  and  who  the  hearers,  or  second  party  ? 

Pupils.  .  His  brethren. 

Teacher.  And  who  the  third,  or  person  spoken  of  ? 

Pupils.  .  (All  hesitate  —  one  says,)  He  spoke  of  himself. 

Teacher.  Very  good.  Then  the  parties  stand,  1st,  Joseph  ;  2d,  his  breth- 
ren ;  3d,  Joseph.   How  many  of  the  parties  does  Joseph  represent  ? 

Pupils.  .  Two ;  the  1st  and  3d. 

Teacher.  When  Joseph  said,  "  Ye  shall  not  see  my  face  except  your  broth 
er  be  with  you,"  who  was  the  speaker  ? 

Pupils.  .  Joseph. 

Teacher.  Who  were  the  hearers  ? 

Pupils.  .  His  brethren. 

Teacher.  Now,  if  Joseph,  stranger  as  he  was  to  his  brethren,  had  said, 
"  This  do  and  live,  for  Joseph  fears  God,"  instead  of  saying,  **  1 
'  fear  God,"  would  they  have  understood  that  he  was  speaking  of 
himself  ? 

Pupils.  .  They  would  not. 

Teacher  If  a  person  by  the  name  of  Frank  should  say,  (meaning  him- 
self,) "Frank  wrote  a  letter,"  w  :ld  the  hearer  know  that  h« 
meant  himself  f 


XXXIV  INTRODUCTORY     COURSE. 

Pupils. .  fie  would  not. 

Teacher.  Then,  when  a  speaker  is  at  the  same  time  the  actor,  i.  e.,  repre- 
sents  two  parties,  he  cannot  be  understood  to  be  the  speaker 
when  he  uses  the  name  of  the  actor.  Ihus,  if  we  had  the  words, 
"  Alexander  conquered,"  no  one  would  suppose  that  Alexander 
said  that.  Now,  how  can  we  show  both  that  Alexander  con- 
quered, and  that  Alexander  said  it  ? 

Pupils. .  If  he  should  say,  "  I  conquered,"  I  would  show  that  he  both  did 
it  and  said  it. 

Teacher.  That  is  right ;  I  is  used  instead  of  Alexander,  to  show  that  the 
actor  and  the  speaker  are  both  one.  Sometimes  the  hearer  and 
the  actor  are  both  cne.    What  shall  we  do  then  ? 

Pupil       (No  one  answers.) 

Teacher.  When  a  teacher  speaks  to  George,  and  says,  "  You  write  well,*' 
the  teacher  is  the  speaker  ;  but  who  is  the  actor,  and  who  tht 
hearer  ? 

Pujrils.  .  George  is  both  aotor  and  hearer. 

Teacher.  But,  suppose  the  teacher  should  say,  "  George  writes  well,"  who 
would  be  the  actor,  and  who  the  hearer  ? 

Pupils.  .  George  would  be  the  actor,  and  those  present  the  hearers. 

Teacher.  Then,  in  order  to  put  George  at  the  same  time  in  the  relation  of 
hearer  and  actor,  we  must  say,  "You  write  well."*  Shall  we 
drop  the  name  when  we  speak  of  George  simply  as  the  actor  ? 

Pupils.  ,  We  need  not. 

Teacher.  But,  suppose  I  were  to  say,  "  George  wrote  a  letter,  and  George 
carried  the  letter  to  George's  teacher,  and  George's  teacher  com- 
mended George  for  George's  neat  letter."  Would  the  expression 
be  agreeable  ? 

Pupils.  .  It  would  not,  because  George  is  repeated  so  often. 

Teacher.  How  could  you  avoid  the  repetition  ? 

Pupils.  .  By  using  he,  his,  and  him. 

Teacher.  But  suppose  the  same  thing  had  been  said  of  Elizabeth  ;  would 
you  use  he,  his,  and  him  t 

PujAls.  .  By  no  means ;  but  she  and  her. 

Teacfiet.  Suppose  I  should  say  of  my  hat,  "My  hat  was  made  in  New 
York,  and  my  hat  was  brought  to  Boston,  where  I  bought  my 
hat ;  "  what  would  you  do  ? 

Pujrils.  .  We  would  use  it,  instead  of  hat. 

Teacher  Very  good.  Now,  these  three  parties  are  called  persons ;  the 
speaker  is  called  thejirst  person  ;  the  hearer  the  second  ;  and  the 
actor,  or  one  spoken  of,  (whether  a  person  or  thing,)  the  third. 
When  the  speaker  wishes  to  represent  himself,  he  cannot  use  his 
name,  but  must  use  some  other  word,  as,  /;  when  he  wishes  to 
represent  the  hearer,  he  must  use  thou  or  you ;  when  he  wishes 
to  represent  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of,  he  may  use  the 
name,  but  to  avoid  repetition  he  uses  he,  she,  it,  &c.  Now,  these 
words,  I,  thou,,  or  you,  he,  she,  it,  and  others,  are  employed  in- 
stead cf  nouns  to  represent  these  several  relations.  Ttiey  there- 
fore are  called  Pronouns,  (instead  of  nouns.)  What  new  part 
of  speech  or  class  of  words  have  we  ? 


*  Here  i«t  the  teacher  show  that  we  sometimes  introduce  the  name  of  the  hearer,  an 
the  person  addressed  —  "  George,  you  write  well."  Let  both  forms  be  adopted  in  th« 
•  ?»rcis as,  rewiring  the  insertion  of  a  comma  afte  the  name. 


i       KOUUCTORY     COURSE.  XXXV 

Pupils.  .  Pronouns.* 

Feachet .  Now,  give  all  the  classes  of  words,  or  parts  of  speech 

EXERCISES 

I.  Make  the  subjects  in  the  following  sentences  represent  both  the  acton 
and  the  speakers  :  — 

Jacob  loved  Joseph.  Cain  slew  Abel.  Columbus  was  aided  by  the 
Queen  of  Spain.  William  the  Conqueror  defeated  Harold.  Thus,  /  loved 
Joseph.  • 

II.  Make  the  same  represent  the  hearers  ;  thus,  You  loved  Joseph. 

III.  Make  the  objects  in  the  above  examples  denote  the  speakers  — 
the  hearer;  thus,  Jacob  loved  me. 

IV.  Put  the  following  words  into  propositions,  and  (1.)  make  the  event 
appear  to  take  place  at  the  time  the  icords  are  spoken,  Qrresent ;)  {2.) 
before  they  are  spoken,  (past;)  (3.)  after  they  are  spoken,  (future :)  — 

Wind  blow.  Corn  grow.  Hail  rattle.  Thunder  roar.  Fire  burn.  Ox 
graze.  Snow  melt.  Vapor  climb.  Dog  worry  cat.  Mouse  catch  trap. 
Play  child  barn  in.  Squirrel  tree  up  run.  Thus,  The  corn  grows.  The 
corn  grew.    The  corn  will  grow. 

V.  Put  the  same  into  propositions,  so  as  to  show  that  the  event  actually 
takes  place ;  thai,  so  as  to  shoio,  not  that  it  takes  place,  but  that  it  may, 
can,  or  must  take  place ;  thus,  The  corn  grows.  The  corn  may  grow, 
(but  does  not  grow.) 

VI.  Alter  the  nouns  so  as  to  make  them  mean  more  than  one.  and  set 
what  change  takes  place  in  the  verb  or  predicate 


GRAMMAR. 

We  have  been  studying  things,  and  what  belong  to  things 
ideas,  and  the  way  to  express  ideas  ;  words,  and  the  way  to 
form,  alter,  and  classify  them  ;  propositions  or  sentences 

*  Directions  to  the  Teacher.  —  The  relation  of  persons  gives  rise  to  the  person- 
al pronoun.  The  pronoun  is  not  needed,  like  the  noun,  to  represent  an  idea,  but  to 
represent  the  relation  of  the  parties  necessarily  implied  in  social  intercourse.  These 
pronouns  should  be  fully  illustrated  to  the  children.  They  all  show  a  relation  to  the 
speaker.  The  relation  affects  both  the  subject  and  predicate.  Let  its  effect  be  illus- 
trated thus  :  Suppose  I  say,  "  James  reads  ;  "  what  change  would  take  place  if  James 
himself  should  express  the"  same  thought?  He  would  say,  "  I  read."  Let  the  pupils 
explain  the  changes  in  both  words.  Now,  if  I  should  express  the  same  thought  to 
James,  I  should  say,  "  You  read."    What  changes  take  place  ? 

The  relation  of  person  is  here  introduced  particularly  in  order  to  develop  the 
pronoun.  Besides  this,  there  are  necessarily  two  other  relations  to  the  speaker.  When 
the  speaker  states  an  event,  he  assumes  the  moment  of  speaking  as  the  point  from 
which  to  reckon  time,  and  places  the  event  at  that  time,  or  throws  it  into  the  past  or 
future,  as  the  fact  may  require.  But  this  relation  requires  no  new  part  of  speech.  It 
affects  only  the  predicate  ;  as,  "James  is  writing,  was  writing,  or  will  be  writing." 

Again  :  the  speaker  looks  upon  an  event  which  he  is  about  to  record  as  something 
real,  as  when  a  house  is  actually  burned,  or  as  something  imaginary,  as  when  we 
think  —  "  What  if  the  house  should  be  burned!"  It  is  not  actually  burned.  Now,  this 
distinction  requires  a  different  mode  of  speaking.  The  teacher  should  illustrate  these 
points,  as  well  as  the  relation  of  number,  before  entering  upon  tho  bod?    'f  this  book- 


1XXV1  IN1R0DUCT0RY     COURSE. 

and  the  way  to  form  them,  and  the  parts  which  compose 
them.  Now,  all  this  prepares  the  way  to  study  grammar. 
Much  o.*  it  is  grammar  —  all,  indeed,  that  has  taught  us  to 
speak  and  write  correctly.  But  grammar,  arranged  sys- 
tematically, considers  whatever  pertains  to  simple  sounds, 
and  the  letters  which  represent  them  ;  whatever  pertains  to 
words,  the  changes  they  undergo,  and  the  classes  to  whicn 
they  belong ;  whatever  pertains  to  sentences,  the  parts  which 
compose  them,  the  relation,  agreement,  dependence,  and 
government  of  these  parts ;  whatever  pertains  to  the  forma- 
tion of  verse,  or  the  arrangement  of  language  so  as  to  pro- 
duce the  agreeable  effect  of  measure.  All  these  are  em- 
braced in  grammar  ;  it  teaches  us  the  principles  which  should 
guide  in  using  language  correctly. 


Suggestions  to  the  Teacher.  —  It  will  be  seen,  throughout  this  introductory 
course,  that  the  aim  has  been  to  state  nothingdogmatically,  but  to  draw  from  the  .stores 
which  the  pupil  already  possesses,  those  facts,  which,  being  placed  in  new  relations, 
may  evolve  the  principle  aimed  at.  In  the  full  course  which  follows  excepting  the  Oral 
Exercises,  the  opposite  method  is  pursued.  The  principle  is  first  stated,  and  then  the 
illustrations  are  given ;  yet  the  teacher,  throughout  the  entire  course,  should  adopt  tbe 
inductive  method,  whenever  a  difficult  lesson  is  to  be  presented  for  the  first  time.  The 
inductive  method  is  invaluable  in  helping  a  feeble  or  undisciplined  mind  to  compre- 
hend elementary  principles,  and  to  group  them  into  more  general  rules.  When  prin 
ciples  are  fully  understood,  the  comprehensive  rule  or  definition  should  he  committed 
to  memory.  The  teacher  cannot  be  too  careful  to  insist  upon  this.  Every  genera'1 
rule  or  definition  should  be  thoroughly  learned  and  used.  Let  the  learner  now  sntet 
upon  the  main  course  ;  let  every  point  be  understood  as  he  advances,  and  his  progress 
will  be  satisfactory  both  to  himself  and  his  teacher. 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 


English  Grammar  treats  of  the  principles  and  usages  af 

the  English  language ;  it  teaches  us  to  speaK  and  write  it 

correctly. 

Rem.  —  Grammar  is  not  a  code  of  laws  made  for  the  language,  but  rather 
derived  from  the  language  in  its  present  state.  It  is  the  province  of  the 
grammarian  to  interpret  and  classify  the  analogies  and  usages  of  the  lan- 
guage so  as  to  present  them  in  a  condensed  and  systematic  view.  Over 
the  laws  of  language  he  has  no  control,  or  rather  he  has  the  same  kind  of 
control  that  the  naturalist  has  over  the  laws  of  the  physical  world,  and  no 
other.  He  does  not  make  the  rules  of  grammar ;  he  only  exhibits  what 
already  exists.    That  the  "  verb  agrees  with  its  nominative  in  number  and 

fierson,"  is  not  an  authoritative  edict  from  the  grammarian.  It  existed  as  a 
aw  of  language  long  before  he  discovered  and  published  it.  It  was  none 
the  less  imperative  before  he  uttered  it,  and  becomes  no  moie  so  because  he 
has  uttered  it.  True,  the  fact  that  it  is  drawn  out,  and  distinctly  stated, 
makes  it  better  known  —  more  widely  understood  —  and,  it  may  be,  more 
generally  obeyed.  And  herein  consists  the  advantage  of  the  study  of 
grammar :  he  who  knows  the  laws  of  language  has  before  him  a  standard 
by  which  he  may  test  his  own  expressions,  while  he  who  yields  only  an 
unconscious  obedience  to  usage  is  never  sure  when  or  why  he  is  right,  nor 
when  or  why  he  is  wrong.  Entering  upon  the  study  of  grammar  with 
these  views,  the  learner,  aided  by  his  teacher,  comes  in  contact  with  the 
language  itself ;  he  himself  becomes  a  discoverer  of  analogies  and  principles, 
it  may  be,  not  even  noted  by  the  grammarian  ;  and  even  if  they  are,  he  re- 
ceives his  greatest  pleasure  from  the  impression,  that  he  is  confirming,  rather 
than  blindly  obeying,  the  statement  of  another.' 

It  teaches  how  to  combine  letters  into  syllables,  syllables 
into  words,  and  words  into  sentences,  either  in  prose  or  verse. 

Grammar  is  divided  into  four  parts  —  Orthography,  Ety- 
mology, Syntax,  and  Prosody. 

Orthography  treats  of  elementary  sounds,  the  letters 
which  represent  them,  and  the  combination  of  letters  into 
syllables  and  words. 

Etymology  treats  of  the  classification,  derivation,  and 
various  modifications  of  words. 

Syntax  treats  of  the  construction  of  sentences. 

Prosody  treats  of  the  laws  of  versification. 

1  ' 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography  treats  of  elementary  sounds,  the  letters  whi-.h 
represent  them,  and  the  combination  of  letters  into  syllables 
and  words. 

ELEMENTARY   SOUNDS. 

ORAL  EXERCISE. 

The  teacher,  calling  the  attention  of  the  class,  says,  Listen !  Then  giving 
the  sound  of  a  in  name,  How  many  heard  my  voice ?  Giving  again  the 
sound  of  s  as  in  *-in,  (not  the  name  ess,  but  the  hissing  sound  alone,)  he 
says,  Did  you  then  hear  my  voice,  or  only  a  whispering  sound  f  Am.  Only 
a  whispering  sound.  Listen  again  !  giving,  in  the  same  manner,  the 
sound  of/,  he  says,  Did  you  hear  a  voice-sound,  or  a  breath-sound  f  Am. 
A  breath-sotmd.  With  the  same  position  of  the  organs,  he  adds  a  slight 
vocality,  producing  the  sound  of  v.  Do  you  hear  any  voice  now  ?  He  tries 
the  same  with  p,  and  passes  from  p  to  b  ;  then  from  t  to  d,  from  k  to  g, 
from  s  to  z,  from  ch  toj,  from  sh  to  zh,  and  thus  shows  the  difference  be- 
tween a  breath-sound,  and  a  breath-sound  mingled  with  a  slight  voice-sound . 
Then,  again,  recalling  their  attention  to  such  sounds  as  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  by 
examples  from  his  own  voice,  always  to  be  repeated  by  the  class,  he  causes 
them  to  observe  and  note  the  distinctions.  They  are  now  prepared  for  the 
following  definitions :  — 

An  elementary  sound  is  the  simplest  sound  of  the  language  ; 
as,  a,  e ;  b,  k. 

The  English  language  contains  about  forty  elementary 
sounds. 

CLASSES  OF  ELEMENTARY  SOUNDS. 

These  sounds  are  divided  into  three  classes  —  vocals,  svb- 
vocals,  and  aspirates. 

The  vocals  consist  of  pure  tone  only ;  as,  a,  e,  i,  o,  u. 

The  subvocals  consist  of  tone  united  with  breath  ;  as,  b,  d 
l  m,  n,  r. 

The  aspirates  consist  of  pure  breath  only  ;  as,  p,  t,  k,f. 

Vocals  are  subdivided  into  long  and  short. 

"The  long  sound  is  one  that  can  be  protracted  at  pleasure ; 
as  may ay,  hee ee. 

The  short  sound  is  one  formed  by  the  same  position  of  the 
organs,  but  uttered  with  an  explosive  effort — pin,  pen,  hat,  six 

Rem.  1.  —  The  a  in  hut  is  properly  the  short  sound  of  a  in  fare,  not  a  in 
hate.    The  short  sound  of  a  in  mate  is  e  in  met,  as  any  one  may  see  by 


ORTHOGRAPHY ELEMENTARY     SOUNDS.  3 

placing  ihi  organs  in  a  position  to  give  a  and  explode  the  sound.  The  t 
la  pin  is  the  short  suund  of  ee  in  seen;  sometimes  represented  by  ee  as  in 
teen,  (bin.)  The  o  in  not  is  the  short  sound  of  o  in  nor,  not  o  in  note. 
The  u  in  put  is  the  short  sound  of  oo  in  book.  The  u  in  but  is  the  short 
iound  of  u  in  fur,  not  u  in  mute. 

R  em .  2.  —  Some  of  the  subvocals,  like  vocals,  may  be  prolonged ;  as,  I,  m, 
t,  r,  th,  v,  %o,  y,  z,  zh.    Others  are  incapable  of  prolongation  ;  as,  b,  d,  g,j,  x. 

The  latter  class  are  sometimes,  though  not  properly,  called  mutes. 

TABLE  OF  ELEMENTARY  SOUNDS. 


Fecals. 

Subvocals. 

Aspirates. 

Correlatives. 

1.  rt-l-e* 

2  f-rt-r 

3  b-rt-U 

4.  h-rt-t 

1.  6-a-t 

2.  rf-o-g 

3.  g-o 

4.  >o-y 

1.  f-aj'-th 

2.  A-o-m-e 

3.  a-r-£ 

4.  j^>-i-n-e 

1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 

6-o-w       =  jo-o-l-e 
rf-o-g        =  £-o-n 
^-e-t         =  A;-i-n-d 
th-i-s        =  ^A-u-m-b 

5.  m-e 

5.  l-o-t 

5.  s-u-n 

5. 

J-o-b         =  cA-i-n 

6.  m-e-t 

6.  m-a-n 

6.  *-a-k-e 

G. 

v-a-n        =  /-a-n 

7.  f-t'-n-e 

8.  p-;-n 

9.  g-o-l-d 

10.  m-o-v-e 

11.  n-o-t 

12.  m-w-t-e 

13.  p-tf-U 

7.  n-o 

8.  s-o-n-g 

9.  b-a-r 

10.  th-i-s 

11.  c-a-t 

12.  M>-i-s-e 

13.  2-o-n-e 

7.  M-i-u-k 

8.  sA-o-n-e 

9.  cA-u-r-1 
10.  wA-e-n 

7. 
8. 

tj-i-n-e      =  s-o-n 
a-z-u-r-e  =  sA-u-t 

14.  c-M-p 

15.  f-oz<-n-d 

14.  u-z-u-i-e 

15.  y-e-s 

The  following  subvocals,  /,  m,  n,  r,  z,  v,  are  sometimes  called  semtvoto- 
lis ;  the  first  four  are  called  liquids. 

N©TB.  —  By  what  rule  such  sounds  as/,  $,  or  c  soft,  which  have  no  vo- 
cality  whatever,  can  be  called  semivowels,  it  is  impossible  to  see. 

The  aspirates  and  subvocals  are  sometimes  divided  according  to  the  or- 
gans of  speech  chiefly  employed  in  forming  them.  Thus,  labials,  p,  b,  f, 
v  ;  dentals,  t,  d,  s,  z ;  palatals',  y  soft  and./;  gutturals,  k,  q,  c,  and  g  hard; 
nasals,  m  and  n;  and  Unguals,  I  and  r. 


EXERCISE.      , 

The  following  words  contain  the  different  elementary  sounds  in  the  lan- 
guage.    Utter  first  the  word,  and  then  the  element  pruded  in  Italics. 

Vocals.  N-a-ine,  f-«-r,  b-a-11,  «-t ;  m-e,  m-e-t;  f-j-ne,  p-i-n;  s-o*ld, 
ci-o-ve,  n-o-t;  m-u-te,  p-M-il,  c-u-p  ;  f-o«-nd. 

*  SiowEST!or<s  to  thbTeachub.  —  The  learner  should  be  taueht  here  to  give 
tttention  to  the  sounds  only,  not  liie  characters  employed  to  represent  them.  The 
teacher's  voice  must  be  bis  guide.  The  character  is  often  deceptive.  The  pupil 
should  be  made  to  appreciate-  the  above  classification,  by  actually  producing  ths 
ltd  noting  the  difference.  In  teaching  these  sounds,  a  whole  word  should 
be  given  at  first,  and  then  one  element  after  another  may  be  dropped,  till  the  pro- 
posed  one  is  left  alone.  Thus,  fate,  —  fa,  —  a ;  ball,—  liX,  —  &;  men,  —  me,—  m  ; 
date,  —  da,  —  d. 

In  even  ists  on  the  correlatives,  the  teacher  will  do  well  to  give  them  in  pairs 
thus  :  b  —  p,  d  —  t,  «  —  k,  f/i  —  th,  &c.  After  having  secured  a  distinct  utterance  of 
them  in  pairs,  he  will  find  it  easy  to  show  the  learner  that  the  subvocal  b,  for  instance 
is  the  same  an  the  aspirate  p,  combined  with  a  slight  vocality.  The  asphate  being 
given,  as  /,  the  corresponding  subvocal,  that  is,  its  correlative, v,  will  be  fouvd  by 
adding  a  slight  vocality,  while  the  organs  preserve  ths  same  position. 


4  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

Suiaocals.  .B-at,  d-og,  g-o,j-oy,  l-ife,  m-an,  n-o,  so-ng,  oa.-r,  «.-oes, 
v-oice,  ?o-ise,  y-cs,  z-one,  a-z-ure. 

Aspirates,  i'-aith,  h-at,  ar-/c,  jp-ine,  j-um,  £-ake,  th-wk,  sA-one, 
cA-urch,  wh-en. 

Tell  by  the  sound  which  letters  in  the  following  promiscuous  examples  are 
vocals,  which  are  subvocals,  and  which  are  aspirates  :  — 

And,  great,  made,  fame,  sad,  mete,  gave,  life,  voice,  six,  zebra,  full,  sup, 
dine,  bid,  bag,  kite,  pare,  when,  this,  shall,  ocean,  king,  feel,  drive,  make, 
link 

Tell,  in  the  last  examples,  which  vowels  are  long,  and  which  are  short. 
LETTERS. 

ORAL  EXERCISE. 

Having  drilled  the  class  sufficiently  on  all  the  elementary  sounds,  the 
teacher,  standing  at  the  blackboard,  utters  an  elementary  sound,  as  s,  and 
says,  Now,  suppose  I  make  this  mark  -f  on  the  board ;  will  you  all  give 
me  the  sound  when  I  point  to  the  mark  ?  Then,  giving  another  sound, 
as  a,  he  makes  another  different  mark  on  the  board,  calling  upon  the  class 
to  give  the  sound,  when  ne  points  to  the  mark,  thus  showing  that  these 
sounds  may  be  associated  with  any  visible  marks  or  characters.  He  con- 
tinues to  invent  new  marks,  always,  as  he  advances,  recurring  to  the  pre- 
vious oiu;s,  that  they  may  not  be  forgotten,  till  some  five  or  six  have  beer 
given.  Having  thus  shown  the  application  and  use  of  a  letter,  as  an  arbi 
trary  invention  to  represent  a  sound,  he  can  easily  exhibit  to  the  class  the 
nature  and  use  of  an  alphabet,  the  difference  between  a  letter  or  a  mere 
mark  and  its  power.  And  when  the  letter  is  called  ess,  he  can  easily  show 
the  difference  between  the  name  ess,  the  letter  or  mark  e,  and  the  power  of 
»,  which  must  be  given  by  the  voice. 

A  letter  is  a  character  used  to  represent  an  elementary 
sound. 

The  English  alphabet  contains  twenty-six  letters  :  A,  a ; 
B,b;  C,c;  D,  d;  E,  e  ;  F,  f ;  G,  g  ;  H,  h  ;  I,  i ;  J,  j  ;  K, 
k  ;  L,  1 ;  M,  m  ;  N,  n  ;  O,  o  ;  P,  p  ;  Q,  q  ;  11,  r ;  S,  s ;  T, 
t;  U,  u;  V,  v;  W,  w ;  X,  x ;  Y,y;  Z,  z. 

The  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  of  two  kinds  —  capitals  and 
small  letters. 

The  various  styles  of  letters  are  the  Roman,  the  Italic, 

©tf)    (ffnjllB^  and  S^ufU. 

Hem.  —  Letters  of  the  same  ?»-ole  differ  in  size,  giving  rise  to  the  fol- 
lowing distinctions :  — 

Great  Primer,        Long  primer, 
English,  ££T 

X  ICQ,,  Minion, 

Small    Pica,  Nonpareil 


ORTHOGRAPHY LETTERS.  O 

When  several  letters,  or  combinations  of  letters,  represent 
ihe  same  sound,  they  are  called  equivalents ;  as,  name,  g-ay, 
th-ey.  Thus  a  may  be  equivalent  to  ai,  ay,  ei,  ey,  ao,  ua% 
as  in  vain,  pay,  rein,  prey,  gaol,  guage. 

When  a  letter  represents  several  different  sounds,  it  is  said 
to  be  variable ;  as,  a  in  name, Jar,  fat,  hall,  care,  what,  liar. 

When  a  letter  has  no  sound,  it  is  said  to  be  silent. 

Rem.  —  It  will  be  seen  that  there  are  more  elementary  sounds  than  let- 
ters.    Hence  some  letters  must  represent  more  than  one  sound  each. 

CLASSES   OF  LETTERS. 

Letters  are  divided  into  two  classes  —  vowefi>  and  conso~ 
nants. 

Those  letters  which  represent  vocals  are  called  vowels. 

They  are  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  and  sometimes  w  and  y. 

Rem.  —  W  and  Y  are  consonants  when  they  precede  a  vowel  in  the  same 
syllable ;  as,  wine,  twine,  yes,  yet.    In  all  other  situations  they  are  vowels. 

Those  letters  which  represent  subvocals  and  aspirates  are 

called  consonants. 

The  consonants  are  b,  d,  g,  I,  m,  n,  r,  v,  z  (subvocal,)  and  f  h,  k,  c,  q,  p, 
t,  s,  (aspirates ; )  x  is  a  subvocal  when  it  is  equivalent  to  gs,  an  aspirate 
when  it  is  equivalent  to  ks. 

EXERCISE. 

Tell  which  letters  are  voicels,  and  which  are  consonants,  in  the  following 
words :  — 

Name,  war,  come,  peace,  tree,  fish,  good,  -live,  old,  sad,  young,  wine 
said,  yet,  win,  new,  gay,  day. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  letters  represent  vocals,  which  subvocals,  and 
which  aspirates :  — 

a,  f,  g,  m,  c,  k,  d,  p,  o,  w,  s,  h,  y,  t,  r,  v,  x,  1,  e,  j. 

Analyze  the  following  icords  by  giving,  in  order,  the  elementary  sounds, 
(not  the  names  of  the  letters ;)  tell  how  many  sounds  and  how  many  letters 
each  has;  also  what  letters  are  silent  :— 

Mete,  laugh,  bought,  fought,  believe,  phthisic,  balm,  rough,  piece,  beau- 
ty, thought,  blight. 

Model.    M  —  e  —  t  =  mete :  —  three  sounds  and  four  letters.     The 
final  e  is  silent. 

Give  the  equivale?it  vocals  in  the  following  words,  tell  what  letters  repre- 
tent  them,  and  write  them  on  your  slates,  thus :  a  =  ai,  ei,  ey,  ay,  ao,  ua,  ue. 

The  equivalent  of  a  in  pale,  sail,  ve/1,  say,  gaol,  gawge,  boqtiet ;  of  a 
'«n  ask,  lawgh,  a?mt,  there,  prayer,  heir ;  of  a  in  hall,  law,  broad,  fa* .  ap 
1* 


6  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

plated,  bought,  awe  ;  of  e  in  be,  tree,  "key,  nea,  brief,  concave,  fatigue  ;  of 
e  in  end,  says,  heifer,  many,  bury,  head,  feoff,  agat'n ;  of  i  in  iron,  eye,  die, 
by,  buy,  aisle,  height,  guide ;  of  i  in  ink,  sieve,  hymn,  been,  guilt,  busy, 
women  ;  of  o  in  go,  door,  owe,  goat,  roe,  flow,  dough,  sew?,  beau ;  of  o  in 
dot,  what,  not,  yacht;  of  u  in  music,  flew,  hue,  \iew,  adieu,  beauty, 
deiice,  sluice,  you,  through. ;  of  u  in  ptill,  wool,  wolf,  would ;  of  u  in 
gun,  ton,  touch,  her,  sir,  myrrh,  does  ;  of  ou  in  plough,  now;  of  oi  in 
toil,  joy. 

Give  the  equivalent  consonant  sounds  of  the  following  words,  in  the  same 
manner: — 

The  equivalents  of  s  in  sure,  sliaill,  cAaise,  ocean,  nuptial,  session,  par 
tisH,  gracio.us ;  of  z  in  zone,  was,  Xerxes,  suffice ;  of  s  in  seat,  cent ;  of  j  in 
joy,  yem,  soldier  ;  of  v  in  vote,  of,  cipher ;  of  z  in  azure,  measure,  rouye , 
of  w  in  wet,  one,  quilt ;  of  y  in  young,  minion. 

Point  out  the  subvocals  in  the  following  icords,  and  give  the  correlatives  of 
szveh  as  have  t/iem,  thus :  b p ;  ?i ;  d 1 :  *  — 

Bat,  bind,  rub,  tube,  dog,  bad,  soda,  day,  gone,  game,  joy,  just,  gill, 
George,  vane,  vine,  then,  those,  long,  let,  fall,  man,  can,  mend,  mist,  sing, 
ring,  cling,  doing,  run,  river,  star,  wave,  wine,  wept,  one,  once,  zone,  zebra, 
has,  his,  sacrifice,  azure,  leisure,  rogue,  yes,  you,  filial. 

Point  out  the  aspirates  in  the  following,  and  give  the  corresponding  sub- 
vocals  to  such  as  have  them :  *  — 

Fame,  far,  if,  staff,  laugh,  tough,  phrase,  kind,  hid,  quay,  lock,  hand, 
hide,  hill,  heart,  put,  pink,  Up,  sin,  same,  sun,  city,  mice,  tell,  tune,  tone, 
net,  pit,  faced,  forced,  thief,  thought,  through,  short,  shave,  shell,  shan, 
sure,  ocean,  official,  church,  chin,  chest,  such,  what,  when,  why,  where. 

Give  the  various  sounds  of  the  several  voicels  in  the  following  words :  — 
Hate,  pate,  ball,  call,  care,  fare,  hat,  mat,  far,  mar,  jar,  liar,  rival,  mete, 
replete,  men,  pen,  hen,  there,  where,  her,  herd,  crier,  fuel,  pine,  mine,  vine, 
twine,  pin,  sin,  din,  tin,  machine,  marine,  fir,  virtue,  bird,  note,  vote,  tore, 
lore,  cot,  odd,  sod,  sorrow,  more,  prove,  for,  sort,  nor,  son,  done,  because, 
honey,  tune,  cure,  tub,  but,  hut,  pull,  bush,  push,  fur,  burr,  sulphur,  rule, 
busy,  siren,  type,  style,  crystal,  physic,  myrrh,  myrtle,  lately,  crazy, 
martyr.    Thus,  hate  —  a,  pate  —  d,  ball  —  d. 

Give  the  various  sounds  of  the  folloxcing  consonants  in  Italics :  — 
Face,  pace,  cap,  cup,  suffice,  yill,  yo,  rouye,  was,  sister,  says,  measure 
wax,  exist. 

COMBINATION  OF  LETTERS. 

When  two  or  more  letters  unite,  to  represent  a  union  of 
elementary  sounds,  they  form  a  combination  of  letters ;  as 
ou,  oi,  bl,  on,  no,  not,  breath,  breadth,  thrusts. 

Note  1.  —  Sometimes  a  combination  of  elementary  sounds  is  represented 
by  a  single  letter ;  as,  i  =  d  e,  (a  in  far,  and  c  in  me ;)  u  in  union  —  yh  ;  o 
in  one  =  wu. 

Note  2.  — Sometimes  a  combination  of  letters  represents  a  single  ele- 
mentary sound ;  as,  th  in  this ;  ti,  ci,  si,  ce,  in  martial,  mission,  official- 


*  Let  this  be  done  by  actually  giving  the  sound,  not  by  looking  at  tba  list  of  eoi 
relatives. 


ORTHOGRAPHY COMBINATION     OF    LETTERS.  ? 

ocean,  oo,  ee,  act,  gg,  ze,  bb,ff,  11,  tt,  in  door,  feet,  Isaac,  egg,  buzz,  ebb,  offt 
tall,  butt. 

I.  Two  or  more  vowels  may  unite  ;  as,  ou  in  sounds  uoy 
m  buoy. 

A  diphthong  is  the  union  of  two  vowels  in  one  syllable 
as,  ou  in  sound,  oi  in  voice. 

A  proper  diphthong  is  one  in  which  both  vowels  are 
sounded  ;  as,  ou  in  thou. 

An  improper  diphthong  is  one  in  which  one  of  the  vowels 
i3  silent ;  as,  the  a  in  heat. 

A  triphthong  is  the  union  of  three  vowels  in  one  syllable 
as,  eau  in  beauty. 

A  proper  triphthong  is  one  in  which  the  three  vowels  are 
sounded  ;  as,  uoy  in  buoy. 

An  i?nproper  triphthong  is  one  in  which  one  or  two  of 
the  vowels  are  silent ;  as,  ea  in  beauty,  ie  in  adieu. 

II.  Two  or  more  consonants  may  unite  ;  as,  bl-e-nd,  thr-ee 
Rule  1.  Two  similar  consonant  sounds,  that  is,  two  aspi- 
rates or  two  subvocals,  may  unite  ;  as,  apt,  adze,  huts. 

Rule  2.  When  a  sub  vocal  is  followed  by  an  aspirate, 
the  latter  usually  takes  the  sound  of  its  correlative ;  as, 
bag,  bags,*  pad,  paas,*  =  bagz,  padz. 

Rule  3.  When  an  aspirate  is  followed  by  a  subvocal 
the  latter  usually  takes  the  sound  of  its  correlative  ;  as 
placed  =  plac'cZ  t  —  placZ,  scraped  =  scraped  t  =  scmpt. 

Note. — To  this  rule  there  are  exceptions;  as,  fierce,  first,  se?it,  no\ 
fierze,  &rzt,  send. 

Rule  4.  While  two  similar  sounds  may  unite,  two  identi- 
cal sounds  cannot,  even  though  letters  to  represent  them 
may  be  employed ;  thus :  egg,  butt,  ebb,  whiff  =:  eg,  but, 
eb,  whif,  not  eg-g,  but-t,  &c. 

*  By  analyzing  the  plurals  of  bag  and  pad,  it  will  be  seen  that,  though  we  add  the 
Jetter  s,  which  should  represent  an  aspirate,  we  do  not  add  an  aspirate  sound,  but  the 
subvocal  sound  z,  and  that  because  it  is  preceded  by  the  subvocals  g  and  d.  JMark 
trie  difference  in  the  following  plurals,  where  s  is  preceded  oy  an  aspirate :  caps,  hata 
hc-ks. 

t  Though  d  should  represent  a  subvocal,  it  takes  the  sound  of  its  correlative,  bo 
cause  it  is  made  to  unite  with  aa  aspirate. 


8  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

III.     Any  consonant  sound  may  unite  with  a  vowel  sound 
as,  aw,  no,  did,  call. 

EXERCISE. 

Point  out  the  vowel  combinations  in  the  following  words  ;  tell  whether  ths 
diphthongs  are  proper  or  improper  :-— 

Fear,  pear,  voice,  sound,  pierce,  receive,  Europe,  people,  view,  adieu, 
beauty,  though,  chief,  fail,  Caesar,  how,  sew,  gaol,  mail,  deal. 

Point  out  the  consonant  combinations  in  the  following,  and  tell  what  let- 
ters are  identical,  and  what  are  changed  into  their  correlatives :  — 

Birds,  blend,  apt,  capped,  clapped,  buzz,  mats,  heads,  beads,  brought, 
off,  skiff,  pass,  insist,  first,  faced,  round,  word,  gird,  gold,  sold,  bulb,  verb, 
worm,  last,  craft,  compact,  acts. 

oYLLAJBLES. 

ORAL  EXERCISE8. 

The  teacher  utters  the  word  bat,  thus,  b  —  a  —  t,  and  says,  How  many 
sounds  did  you  hear  ?  Ans.  Three.  Now,  let  the  class  utter  the  same. 
How  many  listinct  efforts  did  you  make  ?  Ans.  Three.  Now,  utter  them 
all  at  once,  thus,  bat.  How  many  efforts  or  impulses  now  ?  Ans.  One 
When  letters  unite  so  as  to  be  uttered  at  one  impulse,  like  bat,  they  form 
a  syllable.  How  many  impulses  in  bat-tert  How  many  in  pe-cu  liar? 
Which  syllable  receives  the  strongest  impulse  in  con-trol,  in-firm,  dear-ly, 
o-pent 

A  syllable  is  a  letter  or  combination  of  letters  uttered  with 

one  impulse  of  the  voice ;  as,  mat,  mat-ter,  ma-te-ri-al. 

The  essential  part  of  a  syllable  is  a  vowel. 

Note.  —  By  voicel  here  is  meant  a  vowel  sound,  whether  represented  by 
a  single  letter,  a  diphthong,  or  a  triphthong. 

A  syllable  may  consist,  — 

(1.)  Of  a  vowel ;  as,  a -ere,  ei-ther. 

(2.)  Of  a  vowel  with  one  or  more  consonants  prefixed  ; 
as,  basis,  bri-er,  three,  phthisis. 

(3.)  Of  a  vowel  with  one  or  more  consonants  affixed  ;  as., 
in,  elf,  mter-ests,  earths. 

(4.)  Of  a  vowel  with  one  or  more  consonants  both  pre- 
fixed and  affixed  ;  as,  ?i-oo-n,  tr-u-th,  thr-u-sls. 

Note.  —  In  the  preceding  exercises  the  pupil  has  been  occupied  with 
elementary  sottnds  and  the  characters  which  represent  them.  In  this,  he 
is  taugh"  the  modes,  of  combining  these  into  syllables.  It  is  often  ne- 
cessary \>i  separate  a  syllable  into  its  elements. 

The   process   of  combining   elementary   parts   is   called 


ORTHOGRAPHY — WORDS.  9 

tynthesis,  and  that  of  separating  a  combination  into  its  ele- 
ments is  called  analysis. 

Note.  —  In  analyzing  a  syllable,  let  the  learner  tell,  (1.)  the  essential 
part,  that  is,  the  vowel  or  diphthong ;  (2.)  the  consonant  or  consonants 
which  are  prefixed  to  it;  (3.)  the  consonant  or  consonants  which  are 
affixed  to  it. 

MODELS  FOR  ANALYZING  SYLLABLES. 

An  ...  is  a  syllable  consisting  of  two  elements :  — 

A  . . .  .  is  the  essential  element,  —  it  is  a  vowel.     (Give  its  sound.) 

n  ....  is  a  consonant,  and  represents  a  subvocal ;  it  is  affixed  to  a. 
(Give  its  sound.) 

Break  .  is  a  syllable  consisting  of  three  parts :  — 

«a .  .  .  .  is  the  essential  part,  —  it  is  a  diphthong  (why  ?),  improper  (why  ?) ; 
8  is  silent,  —  a  only  is  sounded.     (Give  its  sound.) 

Br.  ...  is  a  union  of  two  consonants,  both  representing  subvocals,  b  and 
r,  (Rule  1,)  which  are  prefixed  to  ea.  (Give  their  sounds  separate- 
ly, then  together.) 

t is  a  consonant  representing  an  aspirate,  and  is  affixed  to  ea.   (Give 

its  sound.) 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  syllables,  and  describe  each  element: — 
Kite,  dog,  numb,  boat,  friend,  truth,  day,  wax,  bat,  view,  sound,  aid, 
meat,  suit,  rude,  the,  think,  sit,  leave,  three,  bursts,  threats. 

Form  syllables  by  prefixing  one  consonant  to  a,  ay,  ey,  ou,  ieu,  y ;  two 
or  moke  consona?its  to  e,  oo,  oe,  i,  ou,  oi,  ee.  ca,  ay,  i,  ey ;  by  affixing  one, 
two,  or  thkee  consonants  to  any  Jive  of  the  above  vowels  or  diphthongs. 
Form  ten  syllables  in  which  one,  two,  or  "more  consonants  sliall  be  prefixed 
and  affixed. 


WORDS  AS  THE  REPRESENTATIVES  OF   SOUNDS. 

Note.  —  Written  words  are  used  to  represent  both  soimds  and  ideas.  As 
the  representatives  of  sounds,  they  are  classified  according  to  the  number 
of  syllables  they  contain. 

A  word  may  consist  of  one  syllable  alone,  or  of  two  or 
more  syllables  united. 

A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  monosyllable  ;  as,  boy 
pen,  tree. 

A  word  of  two  syllables  is  called  a  dissyllable;  as, 
na-ture,  faith-ful. 

A  word  of  three  syllables  is  called  a  trisyllable ;  as, 
nat-u-ral,  faith-ful-ness. 


10 


ZNGLISH     GRAMMAR. 


A  word  of  four  or  more  syllables  is  caLed  a  polysyllable  ' 
as,  un-nat-u-ral,  un-j'aith-ful-ness. 

Accent  is  a  stress  of  the  voice  placed  upon  a  particulai 
syllable,  to  distinguish  it  from  others. 

Every  word  of  more  than  one  syllable  has  one  of  iti 
syllables  accented. 

The  accented  syllable  may  be  either  the  first,  last,  or  a 
middle  syllable  ;  as,  du'ty,  be-long',  pre-paying. 

Some  words  hare  a  prim  try  and  secondary  accent;  as,  in"defat'igable, 

in'conijjrehcn'sible. 

Note.  —  In  separating  a  word  into  its  syllables,  we  should  divide  it  as  it 
is  pronounced.  Thus  some  pronounce  pat'ri-ot,  others  pa'tri-ot,  and  the  t 
must  be  joined  to  the  first  or  second  syllable  accordingly.  The  learner 
should  tell  how  many  syllables  a  word  contains,  calling  it  a  monosyllable, 
dissyllable,  &c. ;  then  point  out  the  accented  syllable,  and  analyze  each  ac- 
cording to  the  preceding  models.  In  writing",  a  syllable  should  never  be 
divided  at  the  end  of  a  line.  A  word  of  more  than  one  syllable  may  be 
divided,  one  part  being  placed  at  the  end  of  one  line,  and  the  other  at  the 
beginning  of  the  next. 

EXERCISE.* 

Analyze  and  describe  the  following  words  :  — 

Beat,  said,  tree;  friendship,  social,  himself,  stately  ;  complaining,  inter- 
pret, indolence;  incessantly,  condemnation,  interdicting,  domesticate; 
consanguinity,  confederation,  impenetrable;  mispronunciation,  incompre- 
hensible, indefatigable  ;  impenetrability ;  incomprehensibility. 

Correct  the  accent  in  the  following  words  :  — 

Local',  indolence,  memo'rable,  ig'noble,  frequently,  lament'able,  actual, 
indisputable,  immutable,  retro 'spect,  completion,  lateral.  Change  the  ac- 
cent in  the  following  words  to  the  second  syllable,  and  give  their  meaning: 
August,  conjure,  desert,  en'trance,  min'ute,  pres'ent,  prpj'ect,  in'valid. 

Write  the  following  words  upon  your  slate,  and  divide  them  into  syllables, 

marking  the  accented  syllable:  — 

-.  Conscience,  detecting,  inability,  indubitable,  commotion,  laborious,  re- 
late, detestation,  infesting,  exemplary. 

Model.     Con'science. 

DERIVATIONS.  — RULES  FOR   SPELLING. 

R]$M. —  So  far  as  the  derivation  of  words  refers  to  their  application,  and 
classification  into  parts  of  speech,  the  subject  properly  belongs  to  the  de- 
partment of  Etymology.  So  far  as  it  refers  to  changes  of  letters  in  spell- 
ing, it  belongs  to  Orthography.  For  the  sake  of  convenience,  the  fol- 
lowing definitions  and  rules  are  here  inserted. 

*  Let  the  teacher  first  give  an  ora!  exercise  in  which  lie  shall  exhibit  the  JMxeM  bf 
oIh  own  voice.    Than  tap.  ire  the  pupil  to  repeat  the  same. 


ORTHOGRAPHY SPELLING.  1  ] 

A  woro.  in  no  way  derived  from  another  is  a  radical  01 
primitive  word  ;  as,  form,  harm. 

A  word  formed  by  joining  to  a  primitive  some  letter  or 
syllable,  to  modify  its  meaning,  is  a  derivative  word ;  as,  re- 
form, harm-Zess. 

A  word  formed  by  uniting  two  or  more  entire  words  is  a 

compound  word  ;  as,  inkstand,  schoolhouse. 

The  parts  of  those  compounds  which  have  been  long  in  use  are  generally 
united  closely ;  as,  nevertheless,  sunrise ;  in  others,  the  hyphen  (-)  is  used 
to  separate  the  parts ;  as,  labor-saving. 

EXE11CISE. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  words  are  primitive,  which  derivative, 
and  which  compound  :  — 

Bright,  fair,  told,  meek,  some,  playful,  joyless,  income,  bookstore,  play- 
mate, cloud-capped,  ink,  housetop,  fearful,  reform,  dismember,  dreary. 

Form  derivative  words  from  the  following  primitives,  and  draw  a  line 
tinder  the  added  syllable  or  letter  :  Hope,  fear,  harm,  love,  care,  know,  peer, 
ape,  weed,  cloud,  form,  grade,  place,  joy,  truth,  poet,  fade,  weep,  laugh. 

Model.     Hopeless. 

Form  comjmtnd  words,  by  joining  some  appropriate  word  to  each  of  the 
following :  Air,  chest,  alms,  bank,  birth,  bill,  lire,  eye,  weed,  toll,  wood, 
foot,  work,  play,  land,  busy,  tree,  breeze. 

Model.    Ah-pump. 

SPELLING. 
Spelling  is  the  art  of  representing  words  by  their  proper 
letters. 

PRIMITIVE  WORDS. 

The  spelling  of  primitive  words  should  be  learned  mainly  from  the  die- 
tionary  or  spelling  book.    The  following  are  the  most  obvious  rules  :  — 

Rule  1.  Monosyllables  ending  in/,  I,  ors,  preceded  by  a 
single  vowel,  double  the  final  consonant ;  as,  stuff,  bell,  miss. 
If,  of,  as,  gas,  has,  was,  yes,  is,  his,  this,  us,  thus,  are  excep 
•  ions. 

Rule  II.  Words  ending  in  any  other  consonant  than/, 
*,  or  s,  do  not  double  the  final  letter ;  as,  put,  rap,  on,  trim, 
orag,star.  Add,  odd,  ebb,  egg,  inn,  err,  burr,  purr,  butt% 
yuzz,  fuzz,  are  exceptions. 

DERIVATIVE  WORDS 
In  the  formation  of  derivative  words,  the  final  letters  of  the  urirnitiv* 


12  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

as  -well  as  those  of  the  prefix,  often  undergo  a  change.    Hence  the  follow 
ing  rules  should  be  studied  with  care. 

PREFIXES. 
That  part  of  a  derivative  word  which  is  placed  before  the 
radical  is  called  a  prefix;  as,  re-turn,  pre-pay. 

In  applying  prefixes  to  radicals,  certain  changes  often  take  place,  to 
render  the  sound  more  agreeable.  These  changes  are  made  according  to 
the  following  rules :  — 

lluLE  I.  Dropping  the  final  Letter.  —  The  final  let- 
ter of  a  prefix  is  sometimes  omitted  ;  as,  co-existent,  for  cow- 
existent  ;    antarctic,  for  an^-arctic. 

Rule  II.  Changing  the  final  Letter.  —  The  final 
Jetter  of  a  prefix  is  often  changed  to  one  which  will  har- 
monize, in  sound,  with  the  initial  letter  of  the  radical ;  as, 
twt-pious,  for  irc-pious. 

The  final  letter  of  the  prefix  generally  becomes  the  same  as  the  first  let- 
ter of  the  radical ;  as,  ^7-limitable. 

The  principal  prefixes  which  undergo  this  change  are  ad,  (ac,  af,  ag,  al, 
an,  ap,  ar,  as,  at;)  con,  (cog,  com,  col,  cor;)  en,  (em;)  e,  (ex,  ec,  ef ;)  dis, 
(dif,  di;)  ob,  (of,  oc,  op;)  sub,  (sue,  suf,  sug,  sup,  sur ;)  syn,  (sym,  syl.) 

EXERCISE  ON  RULES  I.  II. 

Write  derivatives  by  prefixing  anti  to  arctic ;  con  to  temporary,  laborer, 
extensive,  location,  mend,  mix,  mingle,  nomen,  relative;  ad  to  scribe, 
credit,  firm,  fluent,  legation,  rest,  point,  ply,  tempt ;  in  to  religious,  legal, 
egible,  liberal,  noble,  perfect,  penitent,  potent,  prove ;  en  to  body,  broil ; 
ob  to  position,  press,  cur,  fend ;  sub  to  cession,  fix,  fumigation,  fusion,  gest, 
press,  render ;  sijn  to  pathetic,  logistic ;  ex  to  centric,  flux ;  dis  to  fuse,  late. 

Correct  the  follouring  examples  by  Ride  II:  Inply,  subrender,  inmediate, 
sympathetic,  adlegation,  adfect,  adcredit,  obpose,  obportunity,  exfect,  dis- 
fer,  inluminate,  conlect,  conmend,  enploy,  subgest. 

Note.  — The  most  common  prefixes  are  contained  in  the  following  list. 
They  are  chiefly  prepositions  of  Saxon,  Latin,  or  Greek  origin.  The  roota 
to  which  they  are  prefixed  are  not  always  used  as  distinct  words  in  the 
English  language.  The  meaning  of  such  radicals  may  generally  be  deter  . 
mined  by  applying  different  prefixes.  Thus,  in  im-ycl,  ex-pel,  dis--pe\,  com- 
pel, pro-yel,  one  would  readily  see,  by  comparison,  that  pel  means  to  drive. 
These  exercises  on  the  prefixes  may  be  omitted  the  first  time  of  going 
through  the  Grammar. 

PREFIXES  OF  SAXON  ORIGIN. 

Prefix.  Signification.  Example. 

A.  on  or  in.  .Aboard,  ashore. 

Be.  near,  on,  far,  over.  Beside,  Jestir. 

For.  against,  not,  from.  .Forbid,  forsake. 


ORTHOGRAPHY PREFIXES. 


13 


Prefix. 

Signification. 

Example 

Fore. 

before. 

Foresee,  foretell 

Mis. 

wrong,  error. 

Mistake,  misspell. 

Over. 

above,  beyond. 

Overdo,  overload. 

Out. 

beyond,  more. 

Outrun,  outdo. 

Un. 

not,  negation. 

r/nwise,  ?mkind. 

Under, 

oeneath,  inferior. 

Understand,  undergo. 

With. 

above,  tip,  subversion. 

Uplift,  upset. 

against,  from. 

Withstand,  withdraw 

PREFIXES  OF  LATIN  ORIGIN. 

A,  ah,  abs. 

from,  aioay. 

Abstract,  avert. 

Ad.* 

to,  at,  towards. 

Adjoin,  approach  (move). 

Ante. 

before. 

Antecedent  (going). 

Bene. 

good,  well. 

.Benevolent,  oenehcent  (doing) 

Ris  or  Bi. 

twice,  two. 

.Bisect  (cut),  6ipcd  (feet). 

Circum. 

around,  about. 

Ciratmnavigate  (sail). 

Cis. 

on  this  side. 

Cisalpine. 

Con.* 

together,  with. 

Collect,  eonfine. 

Contra. 

against, 
from,  down. 

Contradict  (speak). 

De. 

.Dethrone,  o*etract  (draw). 

Dis.* 

astmcfer. 

Distract,  divert  (turn). 

E  (ex).* 

out  of,  from. 

.Eject  (drive),  expel  (cast). 
.Extraordinary. 

Extra. 

beyond. 

In.* 

into,  in  ;  not.f 

Inform,  include ;  inactive. 

Inter. 

between. 

interpose  (place). 

Intro. 

in,  within. 

introduce  (lead). 

Non. 

not. 

iVonconformist. 

Ob.* 

against. 

Obstruct  (build). 

Per. 

through,  by, 

Perfect  (made). 

Post. 

after. 

Postpone  (place). 

Pre. 

Before. 

Precede  (go). 

Pro. 

for,  forth,  forwards. 

Pronoun,  progress  (go) 

Preter. 

past,  beyond. 

back,  again. 

Preternatural. 

Re. 

.Recall. 

Retro. 

backwards. 

TJetfrograde  (move). 

Se. 

apart,  separation. 

/Secede  (go). 

Sine. 

without. 

■Sinecure  (care). 

Sub.* 

under. 

Subscribe  (write). 

Super. 

over,  beyond, 
over,  change. 

Superscribe  (write). 

Trans. 

Transplant. 

Uni. 

one. 

Uniform.. 

GREEK  PREFIXES. 

A  or  an. 

without. 

Anonymous  (name). 

A  in  phi. 

both,  double. 

Amphibious  (living). 

Ana. 

through,  up. 

dnatomy  (cut). 

Anti. 

against. 

4n^ichristian. 

A  po  or  Aph. 

from. 

Apogee  (earth). 

Dia. 

through. 

Diameter  (measure). 

Epi. 

upon. 

.Epitaph  (tomb). 

11  y  per. 

over,  above. 

JF/ypercritical. 

Hypo. 

under. 

Hypocrite. 

*  Those  prefixes  marked  with  the  star  have  other  forms. 

t  Before  a  verb,  in  signifies  into,  in,  and  sometimes  against ;  before  an  adj«CO*T»,  It 
has  a  negative  meaning. 

2 


Prefix. 

Signification. 

Meta  or  Meih. 

change,  beyond. 

Para. 

from,  against. 

Peri* 

around. 

Syn.* 

with. 

14  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

Example. 
.Metamorphose  (form). 
Paradox  (opinion). 
Perimeter  (measure). 
Sympathy  (feeling). 

Note.  —  Many  of  the  roots  to  which  the  prefixes  are  added  are  not 
distinct  words  in  the  English  language.  In  the  following  exercises,  as 
in  the  above  examples,  such  roots  will  be  defined  in  a  parenthesis.  The 
pupil  should  analyze  derivative  words  according  to  the  following :  — 

MODEL  FOR  ANALYSIS. 

Impenitent  ...  is  a  derivative  word.     (Why  ?  ) 

Penitent  ....  is  the  radical  part,  and  signifies  repenting. 

lm is  the  prefix  (in,  Rule  II.,)  and  signifies  not. 

Hence,  impenitent,  not  repenting. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  derivative  words  according  to  the  model :  — 
Aboard,  aground,  accredit,  accustom,  aggrieve,  antepast  (taste),  for- 
give, bestir,  foreknow,  misplace,  overtake,  abstract  (draw),  outrun,  un- 
common, adjoin,  understand,  uphold,  withdraw,  benevolent  (wishing), 
circumscribe  (write  or  mark),  cisalpine,  bivalve,  complete  (fill),  dispel 
(drive),  imprint,  interdict  (speak),  oppose  (place),  pervade  (pass),  pre- 
meditate, preoccupy,  post  mortem  (death),  progress  (go),  refer  (carry), 
reanimate,  subterraneous,  (earth),  support  (bear),  superstructure,  trans- 
pose (place),  acephalous  (head),  antipathy  (feeling),  apostatize  (standing), 
aphaeresis  (taking),  diagonal  (angle),  epitaph  (tomb),  paraphrase  (speak- 
ing), periphrasis. 

Study  the  list  of  prefixes,  and  then  add  to  tlie  following  roots  all  tJiat  may 
be  used  appropriately.    Define  each  word. 

Form  spire  f  (to  breathe),  rect  (to  make  straight),  part,  sign,  sume  (to 
take),  scribe,  (to  write),  tract  (to  draw),  duce  (to  lead),  sist  (to  stand), 
lude  (to  play),  cede  (to  go,  to  yield),  elude  (to  shut  or  close),  port  (to 
carry),  act,  claim  (to  call  or  speak),  natural,  sine,  prove,  join,  struct  (to 
build),  course,  cur  (to  run),  vention  (the  act  of  coming  or  going),  graph 
(marked  or  written),  fuse,  press,  pel  (to  urge  or  drive),  volve  (to  roll  or 
turn),  gress  (to  step,  pass),  fiw,  flux,  fer  or  late  (to  bear,  cany),  mise  or 
wit  (to  send),  tain  (to  hold),  diet  (to  speak),  pose  (to  place),  vers  or  vert 
(to  turn). 

MODEL. 

Conform,     to  form  together,  i.  e.,  to  assimilate,  to  yield  to  custom. 

Reform,        to  form  again,  i.  e.,  to  renew. 

inform,        to  form  in  [the  mind],  i.  e.,  to  tell. 

ZMorm,       to  form  from  [the  proper  shape],  i.  e.,  to  disfigure. 

Perform,      to  form" through,  i.  e.,  thoroughly,  to  complete. 

Iransiorm,  to  form  over,  i.  e.,  to  change  the  form. 

Note.  —  By  exercises  like  the  above,  multiplied  at  the  discretion  of  the 
teacher,  the  pupil  may  soon  perceive  the  force  of  all  the  prefixes.     It  is  a 

*  Those  prefixes  marked  with  the  star  have  other  forms. 

f  To  many  of  Hie  radicals  two  prefixes  are  added,  each  having  its  peculiar  force  , 
as,  re-coa-struct,  rc-ad-uiit.    The  pupil  should  explain  each. 


ORTHOGRAPHY — SUFFIXES.  15 

good  exercise  to  take  the  dictionary  and  require  the  pupil  to  explain  all 
the  derivatives  from  any  given  root 

SUFFIXES. 

That  part  of  a  derivative  word  which  is  placed  after  the 

radical  is  called  a  suffix ;  as,  faith^/wZ,  end-Zm. 

Note.  —  In  applying  suffixes,  the  final  letter  or  letters  of  the  radical 
are  often  changed.  Such  changes  are  made  according  to  the  following 
rules :  — 

Rule  I.  Doubling  the  final  Letter.  —  On  receiving  a 
suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel,  the  final  consonant  of  a  mono- 
syllable, or  of  any  word  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  is 
doubled,  if  the  radical  ends  with  a  single  consonant,  preceded 
by  a  single  vowel ;  otherwise  it  remains  single  ;  as,  dig-ing, 
dig-ging  ;  defer-ing,  defer-ring.  Not  so  repair-ing,  defend- 
ing, differ-ing. 

Many  words  ending  in  I;  as,  travel,  libel,  cancel,  cavil,  chisel,  counsel, 
duel,  equal,  gravel,  model,  pencil,  revel,  rival,  trammel,  tunnel,  &c,  double 
the  I  on  receiving  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel,  though  not  accented 
on  the  last  syllable.  To  these  add  worship,  bias,  kidnap;  worshipping, 
bias-sing,  kidnap -ping. 

Rule.  II.  Dropping  the  final  Letter.  —  On  receiving 
a  suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel,  the  final  vowel  of  the  radi- 
cal is  dropped  in  most  words  ending  in  e  silent ;  as,  love-ing, 
loving  ;  also  in  some  words  ending  in  y  and  i  ;  as,  felicity- 
ate,  felicitate  ;  detism,  deism. 

Contrary  to  the  general  rule,  the  final  e  is  retained,  when  preceded  by  c 
or/7;  as,  peace-able,  peaceable  ;  change-able,  changeable;  to  preserve  the 
soft  sound  of  those  letters.  So  also  we  have  singeing  and  sivingeing,  to 
distinguish  tnem  from  singing,  swinging. 

The  final  letters  le,  when  followed  by  ly,  are  dropped;  as,  noble-Zy,  no- 
bly. So  also  t  or  te  before  ce  or  eg ;  as,  vagrant-cy,  vagrancy ;  prelate-cy, 
prelacy. 

Words  ending  in  II  usually  drop  one  I  on  taking  an  additional  syllable 
beginning  with  a  consonant  ;  as,  skill-/?^,  skilful. 

RuleJiI.     Changing  the  final  Letter.  —  The  final  y 

of  a  radical  word  is  generally  changed  to  i,  if  preceded  by 

B.  consonant ;  otherwise  it  usually  remains  unchanged  ;  as, 

nappy-es^,  happiest ;  duty-es,  duties  ;  day-s,  days. 

The  f,  in  w  >rds  ending  in  f  or  fe,  is  generally  changed  to  v,  when  the 
suffix  begins  with  a  vowel ;  as,  life,  lives. 
To  prevent  doubling  i,  the  y  is  not  changed  when  the  suffix  begins  with 


16 


ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 


t ;  as,  marry^ny,  marrying.  .For  tne  same  reason,  the  e  being  dropped  by 
Rule  ll.,  in  die,  lie,  tie,  vie,  the  *  is  changed  to  y  ;  as,  dying,  lying,  tying, 
vying. 

EXERCISES  ON  THE  RULES. 

Add  ing,  ed,  or  er,  to  beg,  sit,  dig,  dim,  bed,  dog,  let,  bet,  prefer,  trans- 
fer, forget,  dispel,  propel,  befit,  control,  travel, level,  counsel;  love,  compile, 
receive,  leave,  grieve,  confine,  define.  Add  able  to  peace,  change,  sale  ;  — 
LY  to  able,  disagreeable,  conformable,  idle,  noble  ;  —  ful  to  skill,  will;  — 
es,  ed,  or  ing,  to  duty,  lily,  glory,  story,  history,  beauty,  beautify,  amplify, 
rectify. 

Correct  the  following,  and  explain  your  corrections  :  — 

Beding,  beting,  wifes,  debarcd,  abhorent,  alkalioid,  gloryous,  citys,  fan- 
cyful,  taming,  carding,  dutyful,  bountyful,  handsomeest,  bloting,  farne- 
ous,  agreeabley  incompatibiey.. 


LIST  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  SUFFIXES 
The  following  list  contains  the  principal  suffixes.     They  signify,  — 

I.  The  person  who,  the  female  who :  Ant,  ar,  aid,  ary,  eer,  er,  ee, 
ent,  ist,  ite,  ian,  ive,  or,  ner,  ster,  yer,  sen  ;  ess,  ress,  ix,  ine. 

Examples.  African,  one  who  lives  in  Africa.  Servant,  one  who  serves. 
Beggar,  one  who  begs.  Adversary,  one  who  opposes.  "So,  dotard,  chariot- 
eer, laborer,  mortgagee,  president,  economist,  favorite,  arithmetician, 
operative,  actor,  partner,  teamster,  lawyer,  citizen;  poetess,  instructress, 
testatrix,  heroine. 

II.  The  thing  which,  the  act  of  the  quality  of,  or  state  of:  Acy, 
age,  al,  ade,  ancv,  ance,  ency,  ence,  ety,  hood,  ion,  ism,  ice,  ment,  mony, 
ness,  ry,  ship,  ude  (tude),  th,  ty,  ure,  dom,  ric. 

Examples.  Privacy,  the  state  of  being  private.  Justice,  that  which  ia 
just.  Meekness,  the  quality  of  being  meek.  So,  bondage,  refusal,  cannon- 
ade,  expectancy,  repentanee,  penitence,  emergency,  variety,  childhood,  erec- 
tion, despotism,  commandment,  acrimony,  goodness,  rivalry,  scholarship, 
quietude,  truth,  novelty,  presswre,  Chris  tendom,  bishopric. 

III.  The  property  pertaining  to,  belonging  to,  or  abounding  in :  Ac, 
al,  an  (ian,  ean,)  ar,  ary,  ate,  ic  (tic  or  atic),  i\e,  ine,  ory,  ose  (ious,  eous, 
uous),  ful,  ey,  y. 

Examples.  Elegiac,  pertaining  to  an  elegy.  Mountainons,  abounding 
in  mountains  So,  autumnal,  antediluvian,  emblematic,  lunatic,  consular, 
discretionary,  juveniie,  adamantine,  transitory,  verbose,  wondrous,  affec- 
tionate, hope/id,  sunny. 

IV.  To  cause,  to  make  :  Ate  (iate,  uate),  en,  fy,  ish,  ize,  ise. 
Examples.    Alienate,  to  make  an  alien.     So,  justi/y,  stablis/i,  soften* 

civilize,  criticise. 

V.  Diminution  .    Cle,  cule,  kin,  let,  ling,  ock. 

Examples.  CorpuscZe,  a  little  body  or  particle.  So,  animalcWe,  lamb- 
kin,  eaglet,  duckfe'ny,  hilloc/fc. 

VI.  (Miscellantoxis:)  Oid,  like;  as,  spheroid  —  ive,  tending  to;  as, 
delusive  —  ward,  towards;  as,  eastward — less,  without;  as,  sleepless  — 
ics,  science  of;  as,  mathematics  —  ish,  somewhat ;  as,  bluisA  —  like,  re 
tvrn/dmg  ;  as,  \v\rliJce —  ly,  in  manner ;  as,  wisely  —  able  (iblc),  capable  of  e 
as,  credible. 


ORTHOGRAPHY SUFFIXES.  17 

Note.  -  The  following  terminations  are  properly  grammatical  inflections, 
used  to  denote  the  accidents  of  the  noun,  verb,  adjective,  or  adverb  :  — 

s  or  es,  .  more  than  one,  (plural ;)  as,  birds,*  churches. 

ed,    .  .  .  past  time,  or  the  passive  state  ;  as,  loved,  (did  love,  or  was  loved.) 

ing,  .  .  .   continuing  to  do  ;  as ,  \oving. 

Eli,  est,  .  more,  most ;  as,  warmer  warmest. 

Note.  —  The  general  signifi  ;ations  of  the  various  suffixes  are  given  !n 
the  above  list.  The  pai  ticular  variations  of  these  meanings,  to  suit  given 
cases,  -noil  readily  suggost  themselves. 

MODEL  FOR  ANALYSIS. 

Quietude It  is  a  derivative  word.     ("Why?) 

Quiet is  the  radical  part,  and  signifies  rest. 

Ude is  the  suffix,  and  signifies  state  of. 

Hence  quiet-ude,  state  of  rest. 

Note.  —  By  combining  this  with  the  preceding  model,  the  pupil  can  ana- 
lyze all  words  having  both  a  prefix  and  a  suffix.  All  compounds  may  be 
analyzed  according  to  the  following 

MODEL. 

Sea-breeze  .  .  is  a  compound  word,  (why  ?)  formed  from 

sea, which  means  the  ocean,  and 

breeze,  .  .  .'  .  which  means  a  gentle  xoind. 

Hence  Sea-breeze,  a  gentle  wind  from  the  ocean. 

EXERCISE. 

Study  the  list  of  suffixes  and  prefixes,  and  t/ien  analyze  the  following 
derivative  words :  — 

Incomplete,  famous,  peerage,  childhood,  peaceable,  animalcule,  pupilage, 
globule,  hopeful,  kingdom,  friendship,  expectation,  indecisive,  incompati- 
ble, incomprehensibility,  righteous,  signature,  prepossession,  dissimilarity, 
discovery,  recoverable,  reorganize,  transparency,  debasement,  promotion, 
derangement,  reinstate,  predisposition,  illumination,  ignominiously,  alle- 
gation, confederation,  impenetrability,  disqualification. 

Analyze  the  following  Annpound  words : — 

Seahorse,  timepiece,  cloudcapped,  fireplace,  inkstand,  tree-top,  wood- 
house,  schoolroom,  mousetrap,  whaleship,  sunrise,  drawbridge,  newspaper 
copy-book,  breastplate,  eyesight,  airpump,  cornstalk,  woodpile. 

Add  as  many  prefixes  and  suffixes  as  you  can  to  the  folloicing  radicals, 
and  count  the  number  of  words  you  form  from  each :  — 

Form,  gress  (go),  press,  grade,  range,  merge,  number,  face,  brace,  value, 
measure,  like,  state,  cloud,  fair,  stable,  equal,  print,  trust,  burden,  mix, 
motxnt,  line,  social,  move,  base,  animate,  judge,  test,  use,  lay,  figure,  firm, 
Tene  (come),  join,  struct  (build),  charge,  cede,  seive,  tend. 

*  When  sot  es  are  added  to  If  e  present  tense  of  the  verb,  thoy  denote  the  singu- 
la number. 

2* 


18  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 


MODEL. 


Form  —  forms,  former,  formed,  forming,  formation,  formal,  formally, 
formality,  formalist,  forma/ism,  formative,  reform,  reforms,  reformed,  re* 
forming,  reformation,  reformatory,  reform*  tive,  reformer,  inform,  in- 
forms, informer,  informed,  informing,  infomal,  informally,  informality, 
informant,  misinform,  misinformed,  perform,  ]  'erforms,  joerformer,  perform- 
ed, performing,  performance,  performable,  deform,  deforms,  deformed,  de- 
forming, deformity,  transform,  transforms,  transforming,  transformed,  trans 
formation,  conform,  conform*,  conforming,  conformed,  conformer,  conform- 
ance, conformably,  conformation,  conformist,  conformity,  nonconformist, 
nonconformity,  uuform,  unformed,  uniform,  imiforms,  uniformly,  uni- 
formity.   65  words. 

RULES  FOR  THE  "USE  OF  CAPITAL  LETTERS. 

(1.)  The  first  word  of  every  entire  sentence  should  begin  with  a  capital ; 
as,  "  Jesus  wept." 

(2.)  Titles  of  honor  and  respect,  and  every  proper  name,  and  every  ad- 
jective derived  from  a  proper  name,  should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  IIu 
Highness,  Boston,  Bostonian. 

(3.)  Every  appellation  of  the  Deity  should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as 
God,  Jehovah,  the  Eternal. 

(4.)  The  first  word  of  every  line  in  poetry  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

(5.)  The  words  /  and  O  should  always  be  capitals. 

(6.)  Any  important  word  may  begin  with  a  capital. 

(7.)  The  principal  words  in  the  titles  of  books  should  begin  with  capi- 
tals; as,  Pope?s  "  Essay  on  Man." 

(8.)  The  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation,  when  the  quotation  forms  a 
complete  sentence  by  itself,  should  begin  with  a  capital. 


ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology  treats  of  the  classification,  derivation,  and 
various  modifications  of  words. 

A  word  is  the  sign  of  an  idea,  and  is  either  spoken  oi 
written. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  WORDS. 

According  to  their  meaning  and  use,  all  words  are  divided 
into  eight  classes,  called  Parts  of  Speech. 

All  words  are  divided,  according  to  the  number  of  syllables  they  contain, 
feto  monosyllables,  dissyllables,  trisyllables,  and  polysyllables. 

Words  are  divided,  according  to  their  formation,  into  primitive,  derxva 
tive,  and  compt 

A  primitive  word  is  always  a  simple  word 


ETYMOLOGY  —  PARTS    OF     SPEECH-  19 

Worcis  which  vary  their  forms  in  construction  are  called  declinable 
Those  which  do  not  vary  them,  are  indeclinable. 

PARTS   OF  SPEECH. 

In  English,  there  are  eight  parts  of  speech  —  the  Noun,  the 
Adjective,  the  Pronoun,  the  Verb,  the  Adverb,  the  Preposi- 
tion, the  Conjunction,  and  the  Interjection. 

A.  noun  is  the  name  of  an  object ;  us,  fruit,  Henry,  Boston. 

The  noun  (from  the  Latin  nomen,  a  name)  embraces  a  large  number 
of  words.  All  words  which  are  the  names  of  persons,  animals,  places,  or 
things,  material  or  immaterial,  are  called  nouns. 

An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  limit  or  qualify  the  mean- 
ing of  a  noun  or  pronoun  ;  as,  good,  faithful,  this,  some. 

The  adjective  (from  the  Latin  adjectus,  added  to,  i.  e.,  to  a  noun)  em- 
braces a  large  class  of  words,  which  are  added  to  nouns  to  express  their 
qualities,  or  define  them  ;  as,  "  toorthy  citizens  ;  "  "  this  book."  All  words 
which  are  united  to  nouns  answering  such  questions  as  What?  W/iai 
kirult     Hoio  many?  are  adjectives. 

A  pronoun  is  a  word  which  takes  the  place  of  a  noun  ;  as, 
I,  he,  you,  who. 

This  part  of  speech  (derived  from  the  Latin  pro  and  nomen,  for  a  name) 
embraces  but  a  small  number  of  different  words  ;  yet  any  noun  may  be 
represented  by  a  pronoun.  It  will  be  seen  that  these  three  parts  of  speech 
are  intimately  connected:  the  first  is  the  name  of  an  object;  the  second 
expresses  the  properties  of  the  first ;  the  third  may  take  the  place  of  the 
first. 

A  verb  is  a  word  which  expresses  being,  action,  or  state ; 
as,  be,  read,  sleep,  is  loved. 

Nothing  can  be  affirmed  without  a  verb.  It  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
verbum,  the  ivord,  i.  e.,  the  important  word;  it  embraces  a  large  class  of 
words.  The  different  uses  of  the  verb,  as  well  as  those  of  the  other  parts 
of  speech,  will  be  explained  hereafter. 

An  adverb  is  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  an 

adjective,  or  another  adverb  ;  as,  quickly,  first,  far. 

The  adverb  (from  the  Latin  ad  and  verbum,  added  to  a  verb)  embraces 
all  those  words  which  are  added  to  verbs,  adjectives,  or  other  adverbs,  to 
denote  time,  place,  and  manner. 

A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  show  the  relation  between 
a  noun  or  pronoun  and  some  other  word  ;  &s,fro?n,  upon,  em, 
with. 

This  part  of  speech  includes  a  small  list  0/  words,  which  are  used  to  de- 
note the  relations  of  place,  time,  cause,  manner,  property,  quality,  &c.  It 
is  called  a  preposition  (from  tho  Latin  prse,  before,  and  positio,  a  placing, 
placed  before)  from  the  circumstance  of  its  bemg  placed  before  the  object 
with  which  it  is  always  associated. 


20  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  either  woids 

phrases,  or  propositions ;  as,  and,  but,  or. 

The  conjunction  includes  but  a  small  class  of  words,  which  are  used  to 
Join  the  parts  of  a  sentence  ;  it  is  derived  from  the  Latin  conjunctus,./oiw«J. 

The  interjection  is  used  to  express  some  emotion  of  the 
mind  ;  as,  0  !  alas  ! 

The  term  interjection  (from  the  Latin  interjectus,  throrcn  between)  i* 
applied  to  a  few  words  that  do  not  enter  into  the  structure  of  a  sentem.e, 
Dut  may  be  thrown  in  at  pleasure,  to  express  our  feelings. 


NOUNS. 

A  noun  is  the  name  of  an  object ;  a;    house,  tree,  Boston 
goodness. 

Rem.  1.  —  The  word  object,  as  here  used,  should  be  carefully  distinguished 
from  the  same  term  employed  in  Syntax,  to  denote  the  complement  of  the 
transitive  verb.  It  here  denotes  every  species  of  existence,  material  or 
immaterial,  which  may  be  considered  independently  or  alone;  and  is  op- 
posed to  the  term  attribute,  which  always  represents  something  dependent 
upon,  belonging  to,  or  inherent  in  an  object.*  Thus  apple  is  the  name  of 
the  object,  —  the  substance  which  embraces  every  possible  property  of  the 
apple,  —  while  sweet  is  the  name  of  one  of  its  attributes,  and  when  used 
concretely,  exists  only  in  connection  with  the  object,  not  independently 
and  alone.  These  fundamental  distinctions  gave  rise,  among  the  earlier 
grammarians,  to  the  terms  noun  substantive,  or  name  of  the  substance, 
(object,)  for  the  former,  and  noun  adjective,  or  name  of  the  attribute, 
(something  added  to  the  substance,)  for  the  latter.  Subsequently,  the 
former  term  was  abbreviated  into  substantive,  afterwards  noun,  and  the  lat- 
ter into  adjective. 

Rem:  2.  —  It  will  be  perceived  that  the  idea  of  substance  or  independent 
existence  is  the  basis  of  the  distinction  between  the  noun  and  the  adjec- 
tive ;  yet  it  must  be  remembered  that  nouns  or  adjectives  are  mere  words, 
so  called,  because  the  one  denotes  a  substance,  or  an  object,  and  the  other 
an  attribute. 

Rem.  3.  —  It  will  be  seen,  moreover,  that  an  attribute,  when  regarded 
as  an  independent  existence,  that  is,  when  abstracted  from  the  object  to 
which  it  belongs,  becomes  an  object  of  itself.  Its  name,  whether  changed 
or  not,  ought  to  be  a  noun.  To  show  the  change,  however,  the  word  denot- 
ing the  attribute  generally  undergoes  some  change ;  as,  good,  good-«e.v.s, 
bright,  bright-ness. 

Rem.  4.  —  Whenever  a  word,  syllable,  letter,  or  symbol  of  any  kind  is 
spoken  of  as  an  object,  it  must  be  regarded  as  a  noun  ;  as,  "  We  is  a  per- 
sonal pronoun."  "  Un  is  a  prefix."  "  A  is  a  vowel."  "  +  is  the  sign  of  ad- 
dition."   "  ,  is  a  comma." 

Rem.  5.  —  So,  again,  when  a  phrase,  or  a  clause  of  a  sentence,  is  used  to 
denote  an  object,  it  becomes  a  noun ;  as,  "  To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant." 
"  That  you  have  xoronged  me  doth  appear  in  this." 


*  Note  to  the  Teacher. —  Tt  i?  alt-import  ant  that  tho  learner  arquire  the  habit 
erf  distinguishing,  at  the  outset,  between  <-\\  ooject  and  an  attribute.    This  cei 
don?  by  lessons  on  onjert.-;  and  their  BttriDUtes.     (See  Introduction.)     .!t  will 
the  distinction  a  matter  of  concrptim,  rather  than  of  mere  memory. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  EXERCISES.  21 

Rum.  6.  —  The  noun  is  often  called  a  substantive.  All  phrases  or  clauses, 
*sed  as  nouns,  are  called  substantive  phrases  or  clauses. 

CLASSES  OF  NOUNS. 
Note.  —For  an  oral  exercise,  see  Introduction,  pages  xxix  and  xxx. 
Nouns  are  divided  into  two  classes  — proper  and  common 
A  proper  noun  is  the  name  of  an  individual  object ;  as, 
Tames,  Erie. 

A  common  noun  is  a  name  which  applies  to  each  individ 
jal  of  a  class  of  objects ;  as,  man,  boy,  house. 

Hem.  1.  —  As  a  proper  noun  denotes  simply  an  individual,  whenever  it 
»s  made  to  represent  an  individual  as  belonging  to  a  class,  it  becomes  a 
common  noun ;  as,  "  He  is  the  Cicero  of  his  age,"  i.  e.,  a  distinguished 
orator. 

Rem.  2.  —  Common  nouns,  on  the  contrary,  may  become  proper,  when, 
by  personification,  or  special  use,  the  object  named  is  regarded  as  an  indi- 
vidual, not  belonging  to  a  class ;  as,  "  0  Justice,  thou  art  fled  to  brutish 
beasts,  and  men  have  lost  their  reason."    "  The  Common"    "  The  Park" 

Under  the  head  of  common  nouns  are  commonly  reckoned  collective, 
abstract,  and  verbal  nouns. 

A  collective  noun  is  one  which,  in  the  singular,  denotes  more  than  one 
object ;  as,  army,  family,  flock. 

An  abstract  noun  is  the  name  of  a  quality  or  an  action,  considered  apart 
from  the  object  to  which  it  belongs ;  as,  goodness,  virtue,  wisdom,  move- 
ment 

A  verbal  noun  is  a  participle  used  as  a  noun  ;  as,  "  He  was  convicted 
of  stealing." 
The  infinitive  is  a  kind  of  verbal  noun  ;  as,  "  To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant." 

To  nouns  belong  person,  number,  gender,  and  case. 


EXERCISES. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  xcords  designate  objects,  and  which  prop- 
erties ;  then  select  the  nouns :  — 

Horse,  old,  good,  peach,  vine,  heavy,  dell,  bard,  strong,  hill,  star,  empty,. 
ocean,  hilly,  wright,  William,  European,  engine,  saline,  road,  top,  stile, 
bog,  rose,  upright,  smith,  smart,  weed,  smithy,  smoke,  balloon,  oyster,  sea, 
charict,  wild,  hungry,  thirst,  delay,  duty. 

Select  the  nouns  from  the  following  sentence :  — 
As  soon  as  the  sun  was  seen  coming  over  the  hills,  the  fanner  aroused 
the  laborers  from   slumber,  who,  with  their  scythes  on  their  shoulders. 
and  pitchforks  in  their  hands,  marched  gayly  to  the  field  to  begin  the  la- 
bora  of  the  day. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  nouns  are  common,  and  tohich  art 
proper :  — 
Posterity,  virtue.  Rome,  tea,  Ner-;,  Cicero,  Germany,  Paris,  pomp,  sua 


22  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

shine,   meadow,  Pekin,  gulf,  Medici,   astronomy,  Darius,  father,  calico, 
Louden,  dungeon,  district,  Sicily; 

Tell  which  of  the  following  common  nouns  are  abstract,  which  art 
collective,,  which  are  verbal :  — 

Army,  tasting,  goodness,  heat,  harness,  rising,  sailing,  wisdom,  flock, 
Wonder,  teaching,  energy,  frankness,  freedom,  school,  destiny,  household, 
multitude,  teething,  shutting,  dulness,  company. 

Change  the  following  names  of  properties  into  abstract  nouns  :  — 
pood,  cheerful,  diligent,  rapid,  powerful,  dark,  strong,  heavy,  lovely, 
brilliant,  beautiful,  flaming,  brave,  swift,  lame,  solid,  soft,   thick,  easy, 
Btrange.    Thus,  good,  good  ness. 

Write  the  names  of  fifteen  objects  m  this  room  ;  also  write  the  names 
of  such  objects  at  home  as  you  can  recall. 

Fill  the  blanks  in  the  following  examples  with  nouns  of  your  own  se 
lection :  — 

is  short.    are  strong.    have  fallen.    is  a 

quadruped.     were  destroyed.     will  deefv.     will  rise 

at  six  o'clock.     is  the  king  of  beasts.     was  the  father  of  bis 

country.    was  a  tyrant.    were  overthrown  in  the  Red  Sea 

•  mourned  for  Absalom.    shine  at  night. 


PEKSON. 
Note.  —  Review  the  oral  exercise  in  the  Introduction,  page  xxxiii. 
Person  is  that  property  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  which  shows 
its  relation  to  the  speaker. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  must  represent  either  the  spieaker,  the  person  spoken 
to,  or  the  person  or  tiling  spoken  of. 

There  are  three  persons  —  the  first,  second,  and  third. 

The  first  person  denotes  the  speaker ;  as,  "  I,  John,  saw." 

The  second  person  denotes  the  person  spoken  to ;  as 
'*  Children,  obey  your  parents." 

The  third  person  denotes  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of ; 
as,  "  Thomas  did  not  come."     M  The  harvest  is  abundant.' 

"Rem.  1.  —  Nouns  in  the  first  or  second  person  are  never  used  as  the  sub- 
ject or  object  of  a  verb,  but  may  be  put  in  apposition  with  either,  for  the 
purpose  of  explanation  ;  as,  "  I,  Paul,  beseech  you." 

Rem.  2.  —  The  names  of  inanimate  objects  are  in  the  second  person, 
when  the  objects  to  which  they  apply  are  spoken  to.  Objects  thus  ad- 
dressed are  personified,  and  are  treated  as  though  they  were  actual  hear  • 
crs ;  as,  "  An!  I  have  loved  thee,  Ocean." 

EXERCISE. 

Tell  trie  person  of  the  nouns  and  pronouns  in  thefolkncinq  sentenr.es :  — 
Nero  was  a  tyrant.     Children,  obey  your  parents.    Philip,  thou  art  a 
man.    Belays  are  dangerous.    We  cannot  tamper  with  temptation.    Ta« 


ETYMOLOGY — NUMBER  OF  NOUNS.  23 

ferryman  took  us  safely"  across  the  river.  Keep  thy  heart  with  all  dili- 
gence. We  should  love  our  country.  King  Philip  was  the  last  of  the 
Wampanoags.  "  Let  my  country  be  thine,"  said  his  preserver.  Babylon, 
how  art  thou  fallen !     The  lady  loves  her  will. 

Fill  the  blanks  in  the  folloioing  expressions;  tell  the  person  of  the  noun  or 
pronoun  inserted:  — 

was  executed  for  murder.  ■  art  the  man.    The  lady  lost 

—  purse  and  all  contents.     are  willing  to    remain 

»■  hast  strangely  ended.    delight  in  surf  bathing.    The  father 

called  ■    sons  and daughters  around .     The  duke  was 

esteemed  for uprightness,  and  the  duchess  beloved  for kind- 
ness.    Art a  spirit  of  earth  or  air  ?    wast  wrong  to  urge 

me  so. 

NUMBER  OF  NOUNS.* 

Number  is  that  property  of  a  noun  which  distinguishes  one 
object  from  more  than  one. 

Nouns  have  two  numbers  —  the  singular  and  the  plural. 

The  singular  number  denotes  but  one  object ;  as,  horse, 
river,  nation. 

The  plural  denotes  more  than  one  object ;  as,  horses,  riv~ 
ers,  nations. 

FORMATION  OF  THE  PLURAL. 
I.     The  plural  of  nouns  is  regularly  formed, — 
(1.)  By  adding  s,  when  the  singular  ends  with  a  souncl 

that  can  unite  or  coalesce   with  s ;  as,  look,  looks ;  tree, 

trees. 

(2.)  By  adding  es,  when  the  singular  ends  with  a  sound 

that  cannot  unite  or  coalesce  with  s ;  as  lox,  loxes  ;  church 

churches. 

Rem.  1.  — When  es  is  added,  s  has  the  sound  of  z  ;  as, fox,  foxes;  when 
*  only  is  added,  it  has  the  sound  of  z  when  it  unites  or  coalesces  with  a 
vowel ;  as,  folio,  folios  ;  flea,  fleas.  It  follows  the  rule  (see  Rule  1,  page  7) 
for  the  combination  of  consonants,  when  it  follows  a  consonant ;  that  is, 
it  is  s  aspirate  when  it  unites  with  an  aspirate  ;  as,  hat,  hats  ;  cap,  caps 
surf,  surf's;  clock,  clocks ;  it  is  s  subvocal  (or  z)  when  it  follows  a  subvo- 
cal;  as,' lad,  lads;  log,  logs;  ball,  balls  ;  farm,  farms  ;  fan,  fans  ;  war 
tears. 

*  Let  the  teacler  give  an  oral  exercise  before  commencing  "  Number  of  Nouns. 
Its  object  should  be  to  show  that  number  has  reference  to  one,  or  more  than  one 
Fust,  take  one  bo  ok,  or  any  other  object,  and  ask,  "  Ilow  many  do  1  hold  up  ?  "  .ins. 
One  book.  Spell  the  word  or  write  it  on  the  slate.  How  many  now?  rfns.  Two 
bonks.  What  letter  is  added  ?  Why  is  it  added  ?  How  many  "now  ?  Ans.  Three 
books.  Are  any  more  letters  added?  Jlns.  No  more.  Ilow  would  you  write  the 
word  if  there  were  twenty  books  ?    Ans  The  same  as  when  there  were  two  or  three. 


24 


ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 


Eem.  2.  —  The  s  cr  es  adds  a  syllable  when  it. does  not  coalesce  wito 
the  final  syllable  of  the  singular  ;  as,  church,  church-es  ;  race,  rac-esj  cage, 
cag-es.  The  s  or  es  does  not  add  a  syllable  Avhen  it  does  coalesce  with  the 
final  syllable  ;  as,  work,  works  ;  echo," echoes. 

II.     The  plural  is  irregularly  formed  in  various  ways. 

(1.)  "When  the  final  5,  contrary  to  the  rule,  (see  Rem.  1,  above,)  ia 
MiDYOcal,  after  the  aspirate  sounds  f  fe,  the/  must  be  changed  (see 
Rule  1,  page  7)  into  its  correlative  v  ;  as,  loaf,  loaves ;  life,  lives ;  sheaf, 
sheaves  ;  thief  thieves.  When  s  is  aspirate,  as  in  the  plurals  of  dwarf,  brief, 
scarf  reef,  chief,  grief,  kerchief,  handkerchief  gulf,  surf  turf  serf,  proof 
hoof,  roof  safe',  fife,  strife,  the  Vis  not  changed.  Staff,  when  meaning  a 
stick,  has  stores' for  its  plural;  when  meaning  a  set  of  officers,  it  has 
stajfs.  The  plural  of  wharf,  in  the  United  States,  is  wharves  ;  in  Eng- 
land, wharfs. 

Note.  —  The  s  added  to  th  aspirate  is  also  subvocal,  (except  in  truth,  youth,  and, 
*t  may  !>e,  a  few  Others,)  and  would  cause  a  similar  change  in  the  orthography  of  the 
plural,  were  not  the  correlative  also  represented  by  th ;  as,  oath,  oaths ;  buth,  hatlu. 

(2.)  Most  nouns  ending  in  o,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  add  es,  not- 
withstanding s  alone  would  coalesce  with  o  ;  as,  cargo,  cargoes.  Yet  canto, 
grotto,  quarto,  junto,  duodecimo,  octavo,  solo,  portico,  tyro,  halo,  add  only  s. 
But  by  some  writers  es  is  added.  Nouns  ending  in  o,  preceded  by  a  vowel, 
follow  the  general  rule  ;  as,  folio,  folios  ;  cameo,  cameos. 

(3.)  Nouns  ending  in  y,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  change  y  into  ies ; 
as,  glory,  glories;  mercy,  mercies.  Formerly,  these  words,  in  the  sin- 
gular, ended  in  ie ,  as,  glorie,  mercie ;  their  plurals  were  then  formed  regu- 
larly. Nouns  ending  in  y,  preceded  by  a  vowel,  form  the  plural  regularly  ; 
as,  "day,  days  ;  key,  keys. 

(4. )  The  following  plurals  are  very  irregular ;  as,  man,  men ;  wo- 
man, women  ;  brother,  brethren,  or  brothers  ;  ox,  oxen  ;  goose,  geese ; 
child,  children  ;  foot,  feet ;  louse,  lice;  mouse,  mice  ;  die,  dice  (meaning  a 
cube  used  in  gaming),  dies  (meaning  a  stamp)  ;  pea,  peas,  or  pease  ;  tooth, 
teeth  ;  penny,  pennies  (coins),  pence  (a  sum  or  value). 

(5.)  Names  of  substance,  and  most  abstract  nouns,  commonly  have 
no  plural  form  ;  as,  gold,  cider,  fax,  tnilk,  tar,  goodness,  darkness. 
When  different  kinds  of  the  substance  are  referred  to,  the  plural  is  added  ; 
as,  waters,  wines,  teas. 

(6.)  In  compound  words,  if  the  word  denoting  the  principal  idea 
is  placed  first,  it  is  changed  to  form  the  plural ;  as,  court-martial,  courts 
martial ;  cou.sin-(/erman,  cousi?is-yerma?i ;  hanger-on,  hangers-on ;  but  if 
the  principal  word  is  placed  last,  the  final  word  is  changed  ;  as,  hand- 
ful, haiul-fuls  ;  man-servant,  woman-servant,  and  knight-templar  change 
both  ;  as,  men-servants,  women-servants,  knights-templars. 

(7.)  Letters,  marks,  figures,  and  signs  are  pluralized  by  adding  's ;  as, 
the  s's  ;  the  i's  ;  the  *  's  ;  the  9's  ;  the  +'s. 

(8.)  On  the  use  of  the  plural  of  proper  names  with  a  title  prefixed, 
the  opinions  of  writers  are  divided.  The  following  rules  have  the  au- 
thority of  good  usage  :  — 

(a.)  A  proper  name  with  the  title  of  Mrs.,  or  the  ordinal  numbers,  two, 
three,  four,  &c.,  prefixed,  when  used  in  the  plural,  is  itself  changed,  and  not 
the  title ;  as,  "  the  Mrs.  Livingstons  ;  "  "  the  two  Dr.  Warrens." 

(b.)  In  addressing  two  or  more  persons  of  the  same  family,  or  of  differ- 
ent names,  the  title  alone  is  changed  ;  as,  "  the  Misses  Livingston  ;  " 
"  Messrs.  Walker."  But  either  of  the  following  forms  may  be  used  ;  "  the 
Miss  Rands,"  or  "  the  Misses  Hand ; "  "  the  Mr.  Walkers,"  or  *  the 
Messrs.  Walkers." 


ETYMOLOGY EXERCISE.  25 

(9.)  Many  nouns  from  foreign  languages  retain  their  original  plu- 
rals ;  as,  antithesis,  antitheses ;  automaton,  automata ;  axis,  axes ;  ban- 
dit, banditti;  beau,  beaux ;  cherub,  cherubim;  criterion,  criteria;  datum, 
data ;  desideratum,  desiderata  ;  encomium,  encomia  ;  erratum,  errata  ;  fo- 
cus, foci ;  formula,  formulae ;  hypothesis,  hypotheses  ;  madame,  mesdames  ; 
magus,  magi;  memorandum,  memoranda;  monsieur,  messieurs;  nebula, 
nebula  ;  phenomenon, phenomena ;  radius,  radii;  seraph,  seraphim;  stimu- 
lus, sti?nuli ;  stratum,  strata. 


REMARKS  ON  THE  NUMBER  OF  NOUNS. 

Nouns  "without  the  Plural.  Rem.  1.  —  Proper  names,  when  ap- 
plied to  individuals,  strictly  speaking,  do  not  admit  of  a  plural  form.  But 
when  several  of  the  same  name  or  family  are  spoken  of  together,  the 
noun  takes  the  plural,  according  to  the  general  rule  ;  as,  "  the  Caesars  ;  " 
"  the  Stuarts  ;  "  "  the  Harpers." 

Nouns  without  the  Singular.  Rem.  2.  —  The  following  nouns 
have  no  singular :  embers,  oats,  scissors,  vespers,  literati,  antipodes,  ashes, 
clothes,  billiards,  ides,  intestines,  vitals,  bellows,  draxoers,  nippers,  tongs, 
shears,  &c.  Lungs,  bowels,  and  some  others  have  a  singular  denoting  a 
part  of  the  whole  ;  as,  lung,  boicel. 

Rem.  3.  —  The  following  words  are  plural  in  respect  to  their  original 
form,  but  singular  or  plural  in  respect  to  their  meaning :  alms,  amends, 
news,  riches,  pains,  (meaning  effort,)  odds,  wages,  molasses,  series,  suds, 
corps,  measles,  tidiivjs,  mumps,  rickets,  nuptials ;  as  also  the  names  of 
some  of  the  sciences ;  as,  mathematics,  ethics,  optics,  statics,  mechanics, 
mnemonics. 

Note.  — News  is  now  regarded  as  singular  ;  so  also  measles  and  molasses,  although 
they  iiave  the  plural  form. 

Nouns  either  Singular  or  Plural.  Rem.  4.  —  Some  nouns  art 
alike  in  both  numbers ;  as,  deer,  sheep,  swine,  vermin,  hose,  fry,  trout,  tah- 
mon,  brace,  dozen,  yoJce,  gross. 


EXERCISE. 

NUMBER  of  nouns. 

Note.  —  Let  the  teacher  give  short  sentences  in  the  singular,  as,  watet 
flows,  and  require  the  learner  to  change  the  nouns  to  the  plural. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  nouns  are  singular,  and  which  are  plural  :  — 
Daughter,  diy,  chairs,  watches,  apple,  pears,  stars,  oats,  coat,  nails,  ink 

stand,  horri,  hearts,  hoof,  books,  bundle,  home,  canes,  umbrellas,  markets 

flower,  leaf. 

Write  i\e  plural  of  the  following  nouns,  and  give  the  rule  for  the  termi 
nation :  ■ 

"Work  example,  lady,  oak,  horse,  hope,  stratagem,  ferry,  leaf,  storm, 
bird,  bend,  thief,  dreg,  sex,  trick,  band,  bottle,  day,  filly,  half,  watch,  iroa 
nnegp*. 

Tel1,  the  singular  of  the  following  :  — 

Heroes,  pence,  strata,  teeth,  dies,  memoranda,  children,  mice,  hypothe- 
ses, messieurs,  brethren,  scissors,  seraphim,  axes,  snuffers,  errata,"  cheru- 
oim,  sheep,  formulae,  swine,  sol  >s,  flies,  knives,  riches,  mottoes,  octavo*, 
courts-martial,  inkstands. 
3 


?6  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

Fill  the  following  blanks  ;  the  first  Jive  with  common  nouns  in  the  singular 
number :  — 

is  a  noble  animal.     is  a  virtue.    cannot  be  seen. 

— must  be  avoided.     had  reached  the  meridian.     The  next  fivt 

with  propel'  nouns  in  the  singular :   descended  the  Alps.    waa 

not  at  home.     crossed  the  Delaware.     was  the  Emperor  of 

Rome.     was  a  valiant  soldier.     The  next  jive  with  abstract,  verbal, 

or  collective  nouns  :   on  the  water  is  a  pleasant  amusement.     

was  scattered  by  the  wolves.    is  the  mother  of  vice.    waa 

collected  around  the  hearth-stone      from  friends  is  painful.     'The 

next  jive  with  nouns  which  do  not  admit  of  a  plural :  is  sour.    

is  found  in  Pennsylvania.     goes  before  a  fall.     is  situated  on 

the  Danube.    is  transparent.     The  next  jive  with  nouns  which  do  not 

admh  of  a  singular:  must  be  ground.    take  to  themselves 

wings.     were  joyful.    were  made  of  brass.     were  voted 

by  the  assembly. 

Correct  the  following  plurals,  and  give  the  rule  or  remarks  for  the  cor 
rection :  — 

Heros,  negros,  folioes,  vallies,  dutys,  thiefs,  calfs,  stratums,  phenome- 
nons,  cherubims,  mans,  turkies,  flys,  court-martials,  father-in-laws,  son  in- 
laws, cupsfull,  seraphims. 

Tell  the  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  following  sentence  ;  tell  the  person  and 
number  of  each :  — 

"  Thy  testimonies  have  I  taken  as  an  heritage  forever,  for  they  are  the 
rejoicing  of  my  heart." 


GENDER. 

Gender  is  a  distinction  of  nouns  in  regard  to  sex. 

There  are  three  genders  —  the  masculine,  the  feminine  ^nd 
the  neuter. 

Nouns  which  denote  males  are  of  the  masculine  gender  ; 
as,  man,  king,  hero. 

Nouns  whicn  denote  females  are  of  the  feminine  gender  ; 
as,  woman,  queen,  mother. 

Nouns  which  denote  neither  males  nor  females  are  of  the 
neuter  gender  ;  as,  tree,  rock,  paper. 

Rem.  1.  —  Some  nouns  may  denote  either  males  or  females ;  as,  parent, 
child,  cousin.  These  are  sometimes  said  to  be  of  the  common  gender  ;  but 
as  the  gender  of  such  nouns  may  generally  be  determined  by  the  connec- 
tion, there  seems  to  be  no  necessity  for  the  distinction. 

Rem.  2.  —  By  a  figure  of  speech,  called  Personification,  the  masculine 
or  feminine  gender  is  applied  to  inanimate  obj ects  ;  thus  we  say  of  a  ship, 
"  She  sails  well;"  of  the  sun,  "He  rises  in  the  east."  The  use  of  this 
figure  imparts  peculiar  beauty  and  animation  to  language.  "Tier  flag 
streams  wildly,  and  her  fluttering  sails  pant  to  be  on  their  flight."  '*  Thn 
meek-eyed  morn  appears,  mother  of  dews." 

Rem.  3.  —  In  speaking  of  the  inferior  animals,  and  sometimes  even  oi 


ETYMOLOGY GENDER.  2*3 

infants,  the  distinction  of  sex  is  not  observed;  as,  **  And  it  became  a  ser 
pent,  and  Moses  fled  from  before  it."     u  Tbe  child  was  lying  in  its  cradle." 

Hem.  4.  —  Collective  nouns,  if  they  convey  the  idea  of  .unity,  or  take 
tbe  plural  form,  are  neuter;  as,  "  The  army,  on  its  approach,  raised  a  shout 
of  defiance."  But  if  they  convey  the  idea  of  plurality  without  the  plural 
form,  they  take  the  gender  of  the  individuals  which  compose  the  collec 
tinu  ;  as,  "  The  jury  could  not  agree  upon  their  verdict." 

There  are  three  methods  of  distinguishing  the  sexes :—  - 

(1.)  By  using  the  different  words  :  — 

Examples.  Bachelor,  maid;  beau,  belle;  boar,  sow;  boy,  girl;  broth- 
er, sister ;  buck,  doe  ;  bull,  cow  ;  cock,  lien ;  drake,  duck  ;  earl,  countess ; 
father,  mother ;  gander,  goose ;  horse,  mare  ;  husband,  wife  ;  king,  queen  ; 
lad,  lass;  lord,  lady;  male,  female ;  man,  woman;  nephew,  niece;  ram, 
eive;  son,  daughter;  stag,  hind;  uncle,  aunt;  wizard,  witch;  dog,  bitch; 
mottk,  nun;  hart,  roe ;  master,  mistress;  Mister,  Mistress,  (Mr.,  Mrs.;} 
papa,  mamma;  sir,  madam;  sloven,  slut;  steer,  heifer;  youth,  damsel, 
twain,  nymph. 

Rem.  —  Some  masculine  nouns  have  no  corresponding  feminines ;  as, 
baker,  brewer,  porter,  carrier;  while  some  feminine  nouns  have  no  cor. 
responding  masculine  ;  as,  laundress,  seamstress. 

(2.)  By  a  difference  of  termination  :  — 

Examples.  Abbot,  abbess;  actor,  actress;  administrator,  administra 
trix  ;  adulterer,  adultress ;  ambassador,  ambassadress  ;  autfwr,  authoress  ; 
baron,  baroness ;  bridegroom,  bride;  benefactor,  benefactress;  count,  count- 
ess ;  dauphin,  dauphiness ;  deacon,  deaccmess ;  director,  directress;  duke, 
duchess;  emperor,  empress;  executor,  executrix ;  governor,  governess ;  heir, 
heiress ;  hero,  heroine ;  hunter,  huntress  ;  host,  hostess  ;  instructor,  instruct- 
ress; Jew,  Jewess  ;  landgrave,  landgravine ;  lion,  lioness;  marquis,  mar- 
chioness; monitor,  monitress ;  patron,  patroness;  poet,  poetess;  priest, 
ss  :  prince,  princess ;  prophet,  prophetess ;  shepherd,  shepherdess  ;  tes- 
tator, testatrix ;  t'ujer,  tigress ;  tidor,  tutoress ;  widower,  widow ;  god, 
goddess;  giant,  giantess  ;  negro,  negress ;  songster,  songstress;  sorceier, 
sorceress. ' 

(3.)  By  prefixes  and  suffixes. 

Examples.  "Landlord,  landlady;  gentleman,  genueicoman ;  -peacock, 
peahen;  he-goat,  she-goat;  man-servant,  ma/d-servant ;  ma/e-child,  fs- 
male-child;  cock-STp&rrovr,  Aen-sparrow ;  grandfather,  grandmother;  Eng- 
lishman, Englishioo/non;  merman,  mermaid;  schoolmaster,  schoolmistress. 


EXERCISE. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  nouns  are  masexdine,  which  feminine,  and 
which  neuter :  — 

Picture,  walnut,  duch ass,  philosopher,  Spaniard,  door,  letter,  cap,  sailor, 

3ueen,  priest,  curtain,  lioness,  nun,  captain,  bridge,  widow,  hind,  wizard, 
eacon,  hospital,  fort,  banner,  doe,  brother,  countess. 

Give  the  feminine  gender  to  the  follmoing  nouns  :  — 

Man,  abbot,  horse,  hero,  tiger,  heir,  prophet,  Jew  male,  lord,  widower, 
nart,  Lusband,  beau,  uncle,  author,  host,  shepherd,  poet,  gander,  sultan, 
banter,  master,  drake,  king,  patron,  brdegroom,  stag  prince,  peer,  nephew 


28  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR, 

Give  the  masculine  gender  of  the  following :  — 

Empress,  songstress,  ewe,  mother,  sister,  marchioness,  maid,  actress. 
woman,  she-goat,  electress,  witch,  doe. 

Fill  the  blanks  in  the  following  examples  ;  the  first  five  with  common 
nouns  in  the  masculine  gender ;  — 

is  patient.    loves  his  master.    reigns  king  of  beasSR. 

exposes  his  wares  for  sale. should  venerate  the  eld.     The 

next  five  ivith  proper  or  common  nouns  in  the  feminine  gender :  — was 

Queen  of  England.    entertained  her  guests  with  grace.    was 

a  distinguished  poetess.     was  the  nightingale  of  Sweden. 

loves  her  offspring.     T/ie  next  five  with  collective  nouns,  and  tell  tlie  gender : 

met  at  the  house  of  a  friend.    brought  in  a  verdict.  - 

were  appointed  by  the  chair.   must  obey  its  leaders.   listened 

with  delight. 

CASE. 

OUAL  EXERCISE. 

Will  you  say  or  declare  something  of  a  pent  a,  dog?  a  horse?  a  bee?  a 
tree  ?    Thus,  "  The  pen  is  poor." 

Now,  suppose,  instead  of  saying  something,  you  had  done  something  to 
each  of  these ;  how  would  you  speak  of  it  ?  Ans.  "  I  broke  my  pen."1  Is 
pen  in  the  same  relation  or  case  as  before  ?  Ans.  It  is  not.  It  was  then 
the  subject;  it  is  now  the  object.  (See  Introduction,  Proposition  enlarged.) 
Now,  when  we  use  a  noun  in  the  relation  of  subject,  it  is  in  the  nomina- 
tive case  ;  then  in  what  case  are  these  nouns  ?  George  writes.  The  cfoudt 
are  black.  The  smoke  ascends.  The  wind  blows,  when  we  use  a  noun  in 
the  relation  of  object  after  a  verb  or  a  preposition,  it  is  in  the  objective  case. 
In  what  case  are  these  nouns  ?  I  saw  a  man.  He  broke  the  window.  They 
walk  in  the  garden.    She  sits  on  the  sofa. 

Suppose  Henry  owned  a  sled  ;  how  would  you  tell  whose  sled  it  was  ? 
Ans.  Henry's  sled.  Henry  is  now  in  the  relation  of  a  possessor,  and  the 
word  Henry's  is  said  to  be  in  the  possessive  case.  Tell  in  what  case  the 
following  words  in  Italics  are :  John  came  yesterday.  I  saw  a  hen.  Hum- 
phrey's clock.  The  cat  caught  a  mouse.  Herbert's  dog  worried  his  broth- 
er's cat. 

Will  you  mention  the  name  of  some  object  in  this  room  ?  Ans.  Chair 
Now  say  something  of  the  chair.     "  The  chair  stands  on  the  floor." 


CASE. 

Case  denotes  the  relation  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  to  other 
words. 

There  are  three  cases  —  the  nominative,  the  possessive, 
and  the  objective. 

The  nominative  case  is  the  simplest  form  of  the  noun,  and 
is  commonly  used  as  the  subject  of  a  proposition ;  as, 
*  George  speaks."     "  The  door  was  shut." 

Besides  being  the  subject  of  a  proposition,  the  nominative  case  may  btf 
Used,  1st,  as  the  attribute  of  a  proposition  ;  2d,  it  may  be  used  to  id 
he  subject  or  attribute  ;  3d,  it  may  be  independent  of  any  other  word. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  DECLENSION     OF     NOUNS.  2& 

The  possessive  denotes  the  relation  of  property  or  posses- 
sion ;  as,  "  David's  harp." 

The  possessive  singular  of  nouns  is  regularly  formed  by 
adding  an  apostrophe  (')  and  the  letter  s  to  the  nominative  ; 
as,  man's,  Davids. 

When  the  plural  ends  in  s,  the  apostrophe  only  is  added  ; 
as,  boys\  ladies\  But  the  (')  and  s  are  added  when  it  ends 
in  any  other  letter ;  as,  men's,  women's,  brethren's. 

Rem.  1.  —  When  the  singular  ends  in  s,  or  a  letter  or  combination  of 
letters  having  the  sound  of  s,  and  the  addition  of  a  syllable  would  be 
harsh,  the  (')  only  is  added ;  as,  goodness*  sake,  conscience'  sake,  Moses' 
seat,  Cockatrice'  den. 

Rem.  2.  —  Some  difference  of  opinion  prevails  among  writers  respecting 
the  form  of  the  possessive  in  other  cases  where  the  singular  ends  in  s, 
some  adding  the  (')  only,  and  some  the  (')  and  s.  Thus  we  have  Adams' 
express,  or,  Adams's  express ;  Otis'  letters,  or  Otis' s  letters.  The  weight 
of  authority  seems  to  be  in  favor  of  the  additional  s,  whenever  the  laws  of 
euphony  will  admit ;  especially  if  a  syllable  is  added  in  pronouncing  the 
word  ;  as,  Bates's  Sermons. 

When  a  noun  follows  a  transitive  verb  or  a  preposition,  it 
is  in  the  objective  case ;  as,  "  Thomas  opened  his  knife." 
"  The  bird  sat  on  the  tree." 

Rem.  1.  —  The  nominative  case  answers  the  question  Who?  or  JVJiat?  as, 
"  Who  writes  ?  "  "  John  writes."  "  What  alarms  him  ?  "  "  The  storm 
alarms  him."  The  possessive  answers  the  question  W/iose?  as,  "  Wlwse 
book  have  you  ?  "  "  I  have  my  brother's  book."  The  objective  case  an- 
swers the  question  Whom  ?  or  M  hat  ?  as,  "  Whom  do  you  see  ?  "  "I  see  the 
captain."     "  On  ichat  does  he  stand  ?  "     "  He  stands  upon  the  deck." 

Rem.  2.  —  The  possessive  case  may  be  known  by  its  form.  But  the 
forms  of  the  nominative  and  the  objective  are  alike  ;  hence  they  must  be 
determined  by  their  relation  to  other  words/ 


DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS. 

The  declension  of  a  noun  is  its  variation  to  denote  num 
ber  and  case. 


EXAMPLES 

1.    Boy. 

Sing. 

Nam. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

Boy, 

Boy's, 

Boy; 

Plur. 
Boya, 
Boys', 
Boys. 


30 


ENGLISH     GRAMMAR, 


Nam. 
I'oss. 
Obj. 


Norn. 
Poss 
Obj. 


Fly. 

Sing. 
Fly, 
Fly's, 
Fly; 

John. 

Sing. 

John, 

John's, 

John : 


Plur. 
Flies, 
Flies', 
Flies. 


Plur. 
Wanting. 


Norn. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


Goodness. 

Sing. 

Goodness, 

Goodness', 

Goodness : 


Phir 

Wanting. 


PARSING. 
Parsing  consists,  — 
(1.)  In  telling  the  part  of  speech. 
(2.)  In  telling  its  properties  or  accidents. 
(3.)  In  pointing  out  its  relation  to  other  words,  and  gif 
lug  the  rule  for  its  construction.* 

In  parsing  a  noun,  say,  — 

(1.)  It  is  a  noun,  and  tell  why. 

(2.)  It  is  common  or  proper,  and  tell  why. 

(3.)  It  is  of  the  1st,  2d,  or  3d  person,  and  tell  why. 

(4.)  It  is  of  the  singular  or  plural  number,  and  tell  why. 

(5.)  It  is  of  the  masculine,  feminine,  or  neuter  gender,  and  ten  why. 

(6.)  It  is  of  the  nominative,  possessive,  or  objective  case,  and  tell  why. 

(7.)  The  rule  *  for  construction. 


EXERCISE. 

The  following  nouns  are  in  the  nominative  case. 
"  George  writes." 


Parse  them  thus  :  — . 


George  is  a  noun,  it  is  the  name  of  an  object ;  proper,  it  is  the  name  of 
an  individual  object;  of  the  third  person,  it  denotes  the  person 
spoken  of;  singular  number,  it  denotes  but  one ;  masculine  gen- 
der, it  denotes  a  male  ;  nominative  case,  it  is  used  as  the  subject 
of  the  proposition  "  George  writes."    Rule  I.     "  A  noun  or  pro- 


*  The  pupil  who  has  been  thoroughly  drilled  on  the  Introductory  Course  may 
Be  able  to  introduce  this  third  element  of  parsing,  if  the  teacher  choose.  The  Rule* 
of  Syntax  will,  of  course,  be  anticipated,  if  applied  here.  The  teacher  can  omit  ui 
tee  the  riles,  as  he  may  think  best. 


ETYMOLOGY CASE.  31 

noun  used  as  the  subject  of  a  proposition  must  be  in  the  nomi- 
native case." 

Trees  grow.  Rain  falls.  The  ice  melts.  The  serpent  crawls.  Susan 
sings.  The  coal  burns.  The  stars  shine.  Wisdom  is  profitable.  Dogs 
bark.    T^o  cars  arrive.    Smoke  ascends.    Columbus  sailed.     Mary  studies. 

The  following  nouns  are  in  the  nominative  case.  Those  in  Itaitcs  are  the 
predicate-nominative.    Parse  the  latter  thus  :  — 

"  Henry  was  a  scholar." 
Scholar  .  is  a,  noun,  (why?)  common,  (why?)  third  person,  (why?)  singu- 
lar number,  (why?)  masculine  gender,  (why?^  nominative  case  ; 
(why  ?)  it  is  used  as  the  attribute  of  the  proposition,  "  Henry  is' 
a  scholar."  llule  II.  **-A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  attribute 
of  a  proposition  must  be  in  the  nominative  case." 

Fetei  was  an  apostle.  Gold  is  a  metal.  Demosthenes  was  an  orator. 
Horses  are  animals.  Borneo  is  an  island.  Algebra  is  a  science.  Air  is  a 
fluid.  "Water  is  a  liquid.  The  earth  is  a  globe.  The  Stars  are  suns.  The 
moon  is  a  satellite. 

The  following  nouns  are  in  the  nominative.  Those  in  Italics  are  in  the 
nominative  by  apposition.     Parse  them  thus  :  — 

"  The  Emperor  Nero  was  a  tyrant." 
Nero  .  .  .  is  a  noun,  (why  ?)  proper,  (why?)  third  person,  (why?)  singular 
number,  (why?)  masculine  gender,  (why  ?)  nominative  case ;  it  is 
used  to  identify  or  explain  Emperor.    "Rule  VI.  (Repeat  it.) 

The  psalmist  David  was  a  king.  Paul  the  apostle  was  a  martyr.  The 
lisciple  John  was  beloved.  Washington  the  general  became  Washington 
the  statesman.  Milton  the  poet  was  blind.  Henry  the  scholar  was 
crowned  king. 

The  following  nouns  in  Italics  are  in  the  nominative  independent.  Parse 
them  thus :  — 

"  James,  bring  me  a  book."    "  John,  come." 

James  .  .  is  a  proper  noun,*  second  person,  singular  number,  masculine 
gender,  and  nominative  case  ;  it  denotes  the  person  addressed. 
Rule  X. 

The  following  nouns  in  Italics  are  in  the  p>Qssessive  case,  as  may  be  seen 
by  the  sign  ('s).    Parse  them  thus :  — 

"  The  pupil's  task  is  easy." 
Pupil's  .  is  a  noun,  (why  ?)  common,  (why  ?)  third  person,  (why  ?)  singu- 
lar number,  (why  ?)  masexdine  or  feminine  gender;  it  denotes 
either  a  male  or  a  female ;  possessive  case ;  it  denotes  the  relation 
of  property  or  possession,  and  is  used  to  limit  task.  Rule  VII. 
"  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  limit  another  noun  or  pronoun  by 
denoting  possession,  must  be  in  the  possessive  case." 

The  boy's  hand  was  injured.  The  king's  command  was  issued.  The 
rook's  nest  was  destroyed.  The  bird's  beak  was  broken.  The  s^pent's 
fang  is  poisonous.  The.  elephant's  tusk  is  white.  Rufus's  garden  i3 
watered.     Mary's  work  is  agreeable. 

*  it  vill  be  wo  1  at  times  to  omit  the  definitions,  and  shorten  the  formulas  foi 
pursing 


32  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

The  following  nouns  in  Italics  are  in  t/ie  objective  ;ase.  Parse  them 
thus : — 

"  We  visited  Washington,  the  capital,  in  the  District  of  Columbia." 

Washington  is  a  proper  noun,  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter  gen 
der,  and  objective  case ;  it  is  used  as  the  object  of  visited,  ac- 
cording to  Rule  VIII.  "  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the 
object  of  a  transitive  verb,  or  its  participles,  must  be  in  the 
objective  case." 

Capital  .  .  is  a  noun,  &c,  in  the  objective  case,  and  is  used  to  identify  or 
explain  Washington,  which  is  in  the  objective  case  Rule 
VI.     (Repeat  it.) 

District .  .  .  is  a  common  noun,  &c,  in  the  objective  case,  and  is  used  as 
the  object  of  the  preposition  in,  according  to  Rule  XIV. 
"  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  object  of  a  preposition,  must 
be  in  the  objective  case." 

Columbia     .  is  a  proper  noun,  &c,  object  of  of.    Rule  XIV. 

Put  the  following  nouns  in  Italics  into  the  znssessive  case,  and  let  each 
expression  be  written  on  your  slates,  thus :  — 

"  The  carpenter'  axe.     The  carpenter's  axe." 

Abraham  son.  David  harp.  Moses  law.  Adams  Arithmetic.  Web 
ster  Dictionary.  Peter  coat.  The  teacher  book  lies  upon  the  pupil  desk. 
The  coachman  dog  barked  at  the  herdsman  sheep.  The  lion  roar  aroused 
the  shepherd  dog.     The  farmer  corn  was  destroyed  by  his  neighbor  cow. 

Parse  each  possessive  noun  on  your  slates,  and  give  the  rule  for  forming 
the  possessive  case. 

Write  the  following  nouns  in  the  possessive  plural,  and  place  some  appro- 
priate noun  after  them,  thus :  — 

"  The  tailors'  shears."     "  The  men's  apartment." 

Tailor,  seaman,  captain,  doctor,  lawyer,  judge,  gardener,  shoemaker, 
blacksmith,  hunter,  laborer,  fireman,  engineer,  conductor,  superintendent, 
director,  president. 

Tell  the  case  of  each  noun  in  the  following  examples :  — 
John's  hat  lies  on  Peter's  table.    The  pastor's  visit  consoled  the  moth- 
er's heart.     The  love  of  truth  should  be  cultivated  in  childhood. 

Correct  the  folloioing  examples  and  parse  the  nouns  from  your  slate :  — 
The  huntsman  horn  alarmed  the  shepherd  dog.     The  pilot  wife  saw  het 

husband  bos t.     The  jailer  child  approached  the  prisoner  cell.     We  sat  on 

the  boatman  oar. 

Select  ten  objects  capable  of  action,  and  assert  some  appropriate  action  of 
each.  Then  individualize  (Introduction)  or  limit  both  the  object  and  the 
lotion,  observing  the  rules  of  criticism. 

Correct  the  following  sentences :  — 

let  me  have  my  Slate.  If  you  wil  corect  this  .sentence,  i  wil  thank 
you ;  —  every  sentence  should  begin  with  a  capital.  John  seperates  a  silab- 
»e  at  the  end  of  a  line,  if  you  rite  this  exercise  without  refering  to  the  ni'.a 
for  doubbling  the  final  leter,  you  may  misspcl  too  words,  o,  i  have  made  a 
mistake  in  the  use  of  capitals.  Had'nt  sarah  ought  to  begin  all  proper 
names  with  a  capital,  george  reads  wrights  syfers  spels  and  studyi 
raphy,  but  he  does  not  put  his  commys  where  he'd  ought  to 


ETYMOLOGY  —  ADJECTIVES.  33 


ADJECTIVES. 

ORAL  EXERCISE. 

When  I  say  "  birds,"  I  may  mean  all  the  birds  in  the  world.  How  can 
[  speak  so  as  to  limit  the  number  of  birds  to  ten  ?  Ans.  By  placing  ten 
before  the  word  birds ;  thus,  ten  buds.  We  limit  the  number  by  adding 
something  to  the  word  birds.  What  shall  we  call  the  word  thus  added  to  a 
noun  ?  Ans.  An  adjective,  (added  to.)  Which  represents  the  greater 
mimber  of  horses,  horses  —  or  white  horses  ?  Ans.  Horses.  What  word  has 
thus  diminished  the  number  of  horses  ?  Ans.  White.  Does  white  show  a 
quality  as  well  as  limit  the  number  ?  Ans.  It  does.  Which  represents 
the  greater  number,  books  —  or  jive  books  f  Ans.  Boolcs.  Does  jive  show  a 
quality  of  the  books,  as,  good,  useful,  bad,  at  the  same  time  that  it  limits 
the  number  ?  Ans.  It  does  not;  it  limits  without  showing  any  quality. 
What  is  the  difference,  then,  between  jive  and  white  f  Five  limits  without 
qualifying,  and  white  limits  by  qualifying.  What  kind  of  adjectives  are 
these  in  Italics  t  Good  scholars,  bad  pens,  old  houses,  faithful  servants. 
Ans.  They  are  adjectives  expressing  quality.  What  kind  of  adjectives 
are  these  ?  Ten  stoves,  the^Vs^  class,  yonder  orchard,  this  hat,  every  day. 
Ans.  They  arc  adjectives  which  limit,  but  do  not  qualify.  (See  Introduc- 
tion, "  Objects  Individualized.")  Now  study  carefully  the  following  def- 
initions and  mark  the  distinctions  :  — 

An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  limit  or  qualify  a  noun  ; 

as,  "  a  good  school ;  "  "a  diligent  boy  ;  "  "  this  table  ; " 

"  ten  men  ;  "  "  the  box." 

Rem.  —  All  words  which  have  the  construction  of  the  adjective  are 
here  considered  under  the  head  of  adjectives.  The  article,  like  the  ad- 
jective, belongs  to  the  noun  ;  it  has  the  same  construction  as  the  adjective, 
and  is  hence  placed  among  adjectives. 

Every  adjective  is  a  dependent  or  subordinate  word,  and 

must  belong  to  some  noun  or  pronoun  as  its  principal. 

Rem.  1.  —  When  the  noun  or  pronoun  to  which  the  adjective  belongs 
has  been  previously  used  in  the  same  sentence,  or  is  some  indefinite  word, 
as,  person,  some  one,  or  some  thing,  it  may  be  omitted ;  as,  "I  wiU  give 
~'.u  this  book,  if  you  will  give  rxe'that."  "  The  kingdom  of  heaven  suf- 
-«reth  violence,  and  the  violent  [persons]  take  it  by  force." 

_3,EM.  2.  —  An  adjective  belonging  to  a  noun  understood,  or  omitted, 
takes  the  place  of  the  latter,  and  is  said  to  be  an  adjective  used  as  a  noun. 
/°se  model  for  parsing  that  and  violent,  p.  39.) 


CLASSES   OF  ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives  are  divided  into  two  classes  —  limbing  and 
qualifying. 

A  limiting  adjective  is  used  to  define  or  restrict  tb«>  mean- 
ing of  a  noun,  without  expressing  any  of  its  qualities  ;  as, 
"  the  house  ;  "  "five  books ;  "  "  this  pen." 

Limiting  adjectives  are  divided  into  three  classes  —  (trti 
ties,  -pronominal  adjectives,  and  numeral  adjectives. 


54  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

ARTICLES. 

The  particular  limiting  adjectives,  the  and  a,  or  an  are 
called  articles. 

The  is  called  the  definite,  because  it  points  out  some  par- 
ticular thing  ;  as,  "  the  desk ;  "  "  the  sun." 

A,  or  an,  is  called  an  indefinite  article,  because  it  does  not 
point  out  any  particular  thing  ;  as,"  a  pen ;  "  "  an  orchard.'* 

An  is  used  before  a  vowel  sound,  and   a  before  a  conso- 

oant  sound  ;  as,  u  an  apple  ;  "  "  a  pin  ;  "  "  an  hour  ;  "  "  a 

union  ;  "  u  an  honor." 

Rem.  —  Although  the  article  is  intimately  connected  with  the  limitation 
of  no  ans,  it  is  to  be  regarded  rather  as  the  sign  of  limitation  than  as  it- 
self a  limiting  vrord.  When  one  says,  "  The  man,"  the  gives  notice  to  the 
hearer  that  some  particular  man  is  regarded  in  the  mind  of  the  speaker. 
He  will  point  out,  by  limiting  or  individualizing,  who  that  particular  man 
is.  A,  or  an,  again,  is  a  sign  that  the  speaker,  in  regarding  a  multitude  of 
objects  of  the  same  kind,  thinks  of  one,  but  no  specific  or  particular  one 
The  object  may  be  limited  to  show  what  class  or  description  of  objects  is 
meant,  but  not  to  show  any  particular  individual.  A,  or  an,  however,  may 
be  said  to  limit  whenever  it  prevents  a  noun  from  being  used  in  its  wides* 
sense  ;  as,  man  =  the  whole  human  race  ;  a  man  =  one  man,  but  no  par- 
ticular one.  The,  again,  may  be  said  to  extend  the  meaning  of  a  noun  in 
the  singular,  when  it  is  used  in  such  examples  as  these  :  "  TJie  horse  "  = 
"  all  horses."     "  The  dog,"  &c. 

EXERCISE. 

Point  out  the  articles  in  the  folloiving  examples ;  tell  which  are  definite 
and  which  are  indefinite  :  — 

The  hat,  a  book,  a  knife,  a  box,  an  heir,  an  ox,  a  plough,  an  orchard,  an 
industrious  man,  an  honest  man,  a  good  citizen,  a  hill,  a  huge  round  stone, 
the  enemy,  the  union,  the  ewe. 

Correct  the  folloxoing  examples  in  all  respects;  write  them  on  your 
slates  :  — 

I  have  got  an  hat.  We  have  an  horse.  We  saw  many  an  one.  Wc 
went  a  snowballing.  I  dun  it  ttiis  mornin'.  I  saw  any  quantity  of  slays. 
I  seen  him  do  it.     I  board  an  hole  with  my  uncles  gimblet.* 


*  Suggestion  to  thk  Teacher. —  It  is  fi.e  design  of  these  examples,  interspersed 
among  others,  to  keep  alive  the  spirit  of  <  ru'eism,  and  to  root  out  hy  practical  exer- 
cises those  incorrect  expressions  which  children  have  imbibed  from  early  associations 
Many  of  them  may  be  corrected  by  principles  already  acquired.  Others  will  antici- 
pate the  rules  yet  to  he  given.  And  others,  still,  can  never  be  reached  by  the  rules  of 
grammar ;  they  must  be  corrected  by  the  laws  of  good  usage.  (See  Rem.  page  1  ) 
What  rule  of  grammar  will  correct  such  an  expression  as  "  I  disremember  what  lie 
Baid  ?  "  Cannot  every  word  be  parsed  r  Does  grammar  correct  this?  "  I  proper* 
(purpose)  to  visit  my  friends."  Every  improvement  in  the  expressions  of  the  learner 
U  a  decided  gain,  whether  it  be  made  by  rule,  or  by  observing  the  custom  of  good 
speakers  or  good  writers.  Correct  all  faulty  expressions  by  the  rules  of  grammar, 
it  possible,  but  at  all  events  correct  them. 


ETYMOLOGY ArJECTIVES.  »     j 

PRONOMINAL   ADJECTIVES. 

Tiiose  limiting  adjectives  which  may,  without  U<  !/J  •*« 
the  article,  represent  a  noun  when  understood,  ai  called 
pronominal  adjectives ;  as,  "  That  (book)  is  his  ,  this  i? 
yours." 

The  principal  pronominal  adjectives  are,  this,  that,  these 
those,  former,  latter,  which,  what,  each,  every,  either,  neither, 
some,  one,  none,  any,  all,  such,  much,  loth,  few,  fewer,  fewest , 
first,  last,  little,  less,  least,  many,  more,  most,  own,  same 
several,  sundry,  enough. 

Rem.  1.  —  When  such  adjectives  represent  a  noun  understood,  they  are 
generally  called  pronouns.  They  may  more  properly  be  called  limiting 
adjectives,  (pronominal  adjectives,)  used  as  nouns  ;  as,  "  This  is  my  book." 
The  articles  never  represent  a  noun  understood. 

Rem.  2.  —  Qualifying  adjectives  may  also  represent  a  noun  when  under 
stood,  but  the  article  must  be  prefixed ;  as,  "  The  good  are  happy." 

Rem.  3.  —  All  is  sometimes  a  noun  ;  as,  "  He  robbed  me  of  my  house, 
my  goods,  my  home,  my  all."  Both  is  frequently  a  conjunction ;  as,  "  1 
both  saw  and  heard  him." 

Rem.  4.  —  Each,  every,  either,  neither,  are  used  distributively.  This  and 
that,  with  their  plurals,  these  and  those,  are  used  demonstratively.  None, 
any,  all,  such,  ivhole,  some,  both,  one,  other,  another,  are  used  indefinitely. 

Rem.  5.  —  These,  those,  all,  many,  both,  few,  feioer,  fewest,  several, 
sundry,  usually  require  a  noun  in  the  plural ;  as,  "  These  days."  "  Those 
plants." 

Rem.  6  —  One  and  other  are  declined  thus  :  — 

Sing.  Plu.  Sing.  Plu. 

Nom.  One,  Ones,  Nom.  Other,  Others, 

Poss.  One's,         Ones',  Poss.  Other's,         Others' 

Obj.  One;  Ones.  Obj.      '        Other;  Others. 


EXERCISES. 

Point  out  the  pronominal  adjectives  in  the  folloioing  sentences :  — 
This  rule  is  preferable  to  that.  These  scholars  are  more  studious  thai, 
those.  The  former  plan  has  yielded  to  the  latter.  Each  exercise  was  well 
written.  Every  accused  one  was  acquitted.  The  first  method  is  better 
than  the  last.  Many  of  our  hopes  are  blasted.  Few  men  are  of  the  same 
mind.  Much  remains  to  be  said  upon  all  these  points.  Our  own  wishes 
must  often  be  yielded  to  those  of  others.  More  were  present  than  were 
expected.  Little  hope  was  entertained  of  his  recovery.  Neither  remark 
was  just.  The  same  course  was  pursued  by  several  of  the  members. 
Much  harm  arises  from  imprudence.  I  am  less  than  the  least  of  all 
saints 

Correct  the  following  in  all  respects:  — 

Those  sort  of  cherries  aint  srood,  these  exercises  is  not  corect  in  somt 


36  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

respect,  tlie  Times  t£  very  hard,  our  dutys  must  Be  performed.  Sever' 
pupils  come  in  late  yesterday  None  has  came,  ll'aint  you  seen  them 
men  ?  he  said  he  hadat  none.  James  thinks  thats  right,  but  otherfc 
dozent. 


NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 

Numeral  adjectives  are  those  which  express  number ,  as, 
wie,  two,  three,  first,  second,  &c. 

Numeral  adjectives  are  divided  into,  Cardinal,  which 
denote  how  many  ;  as,  one,  two,  three,  &c. ;  Ordinal,  whi^ii 
show  which  one  of  a  series  ;  as,  first,  second,  third. 

EXERCISE. 

Apply  cardinal  numbers  to  the  following  nouns ;  change  them  to  the 
pkiral,  if  necessary :  — 

Peach,  berry,  box,  cup,  match,  cork,  shoe,  glove,  pencil,  wafer,  penny, 
mouse,  goose,  woman,  court-martial,  tooth,  brother-in-law,  handful,  stra- 
•uin,  index,  stamen,  cherub,  phenomenon. 

Correct  the  following  plurals,  and  apply  to  each  any  numeral  greater  tJian 
one  or  first :  — 

Oxes,  calfs,  sheeps,  deers,  geeses,  9s,  7s,  fs,  cherubims,  serapnims; 
wines,  vallies,  loafs,  ehimnies,  journies,  studys,  commander-in-chiefs, 
pros,  soloes,  grottoes,  ladys. 

Collr.it  all  the  erroneous  expression?  which  you  have  noticed  to-day.  and 
orrect  tnem.     Be  careful  to  avoid  them  yourself 


QUALIFYING  ADJECTIVES. 

A  qualifying  adjective  is  one  which  limits  the  meaning 
of  a  noun,  by  denoting  some  property  or  quality  ;  as,  "  a 
virtuous  man  ;  M  "a  running  horse."  To  this  class  of  ad- 
jectives belong  the  participles,  which  have  the  signification 
of  the  verb  and  the  construction  of  the  adjective. 

Rem.  1.  —  When  the  participle  is  placed  before  the  noun  which  it  modi- 
fies, it  is  called  a.  participial  adjective ;  as,  "  The  rising  sun."  When  it  is 
placed  after  the  noun,  and  is  itself  limited  by  other  words,  it  is  parsed  as 
a  participle  ;  as,  "  The  sun  rising  in  the  east." 

Rem.  2.  —  When  a  qualifying  adjective  represents  an  object  understood, 
r'ther  definite  or  indefinite,"  the  articled  must  be  placed  before  it ;  as, 
"  The  wise  [persons ;]  the  benevolent  [ones ;]  the  beautiful,  the  good, 
and  the  true."  When  the  quality  is  used  abstractly,  the  adjective  under* 
goes  a  change  in  its  termination  ;"  as,  Wise(  wisdom  ,•  beautiful,  beauty. 


ETI MOLOGY  —  ADJECTIVES.  31 

COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

When  different  objects  are  compared  with  each  other,  the 
adjective  expressing  the  quality  by  means  of  »vhich  they  are 
compared  undergoes  a  change,  called  comparison. 

There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison  —  the  positive^ 
comparative,  and  superlative. 

The  positive  simply  denotes  a  quality ;  as,  righteous , 
pleasant. 

The  comparative  shows  that  one  of  two  objects  possesses 
a  quality  in  a  higher  degree  than  the  other ;  as,  "  This  tree 
is  taller  than  that." 

The  superlative  shows  that  one  of  several  objects  possesses 
a  quality  in  the  highest  degree,  when  compared  with  all  tjjjp 
rest ;  as,  "  That  pine  is  the  tallest  tree  in  the  grove." 

FORMATION  OP  THE  COMPARATIVE  AND   SUPERLATIVE. 

The  comparative  of  monosyllables  is  regularly  formed  by 
adding  r  or  er,  and  the  superlative  by  adding  st  or  est,  to  the 
positive  ;  as,  wise,  wiser,  wisest ;  hold,  holder,  coldest. 

The  comparative  of  most  adjectives  of  more  than  one 
syllable  is  formed  by  prefixing  more  or  less,  and  the 
superlative  by  prefixing  most  or  least,  to  the  positive  ;  as* 
industrious,  more  industrious,  most  industrious. 

The  following  adjectives  are  compared  irregularly:  Good,  better,  best; 
bad,  worse,  worst ;  ill,  tcorse,  worst ;  little,  less  or  lesser,  least ;  much,  more 
most ;  many,  more,  most ;  far,  farther,  farthest ;  near,  nearer,  nearest  or 
next ;  late,  later,  latest  or  last ;  old,  older,  or  elder,  oldest  or  eldest. 

Rem.  l.-r-  Adjectives  terminating  in  ish  indicate  the  possession  of  a 
quality  in  a  lower  degree  than  the  positive ;  as,  bluish,  approaching  in 
color  to  blue. 

Rem.  2.  —  The  meaning  of  the  positive  is  also  varied  by  the  addition  of 
such  adverbs  as  somewliat,  rather,  slightly,  a  little,  too,  very,  greatly,  ex- 
ceedingly, &c. ;  that  of  the  comparative  and  superlative  by  such  word* 
as  milch,  far,  vastly,  altogether,  by  far,  &c. 

Hem.  3  — Several  adjectives  in  the  superlative  degree  are  formed  by 
adding  most  to  up,  upper,  nether,  in,  inner,  hind,  hinder,  out,  (contracted  to 
\U,)  outer,  further,  hither,  top,  bottom;  as,  upmost,  uppermost,  inmost. 

Hem  4.  —  Adjectives  derived  from  proper  names,  numerals,  pronomi 
nal  adjectives,  and  such  as  refej  to  position,  material  and  form,  are  seldom, 
If  ever,  compared. 

4 


38  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 


EXERCISES. 


Tell  which  of  the  following  words  are  adjectives :  — 
Ice,  cold,  soft,  water,  this,  little,  chair,  knob,  arise,  brave,  diligent,  ink 
stand,  lamp,  many,  former,  light,  white,  match,  rough. 

\   Tell  which  of  the  following  adjectives  are  limiting,  and  which  are  quoit- 

■\ing:  — 

>'  Strong,  twenty,  faithful,  green,- this,  first,  are,  old,  former,  jellow,  every, 

such,  wonderful,  timid,  sweet,  any,  fifth,  the,  soft,  those,  pure,  ripe,  tough, 

other,  thirty,  odious. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  adjectives  are  of  the  positive,  which  of  the 
i<-mjxi)'ative,  and  which  of  the  superlative  degree :  — 

Braver,  young,  more,  acceptable,  eldest,  less,  useful,  worst,  better,  most 
honorable,  strongest,  sadder,  more  plentiful,  least  worthy,  last,  good, 
thrifty,  considerate,  tallest. 

Compare  the  following  adjectives  :  — 

Bright,  active,  handsome,  wise,  sad,  able,  just,  diligent,  beautiful,  good, 
excellent,  dutiful,  little,  serene,  fruitful,  large,  obedient,  warm,  studious, 
Shble,  dexterous,  gloomy,  industrious,  honorable,  hot,  ample,  hard, 
worthy. 

Apply  limiting  adjectives  to  ten  common  nouns. 

Apply  qualifying  adjectives  to  ten  common  nouns,  of  the  masculine  gender, 
and  in  the  plural  number. 

Apply  qualifying  adjectives,  in  the  comparative  degree,  to  ten  common 
nouns  in  the  feminine  gender. 

Apply  qualifying  adjectives,  in  the  superlative  degree,  to  ten  nouns  in  the 
neuter  gender. 

Fill  the  blanks  in  the  following  examples  :  — 

men  are  respected.     Intemperance  is vice.     Gold  is  ■■ 

pf  metals.  The  sun  is than  the  earth.  Asia  is grand  divis- 
ion.    The  plague  is  the fatal  of  diseases.     The  Pacific  is 

than  the  Atlantic.    men  sit  at  their  doors.     The south  wind 

breathes  gently  forth.      events  cast  their  shadows  before.     The 

Alps  are ,  the  Andejs  are ,  but  the  Himalaya  are of  all. 

men  never  lived. men  never  fought. 

Study  the  following  models  for  parsing ,  and  then  parse  any  of  the  above 
examples :  — 
In  parsing  an  adjective,  — 
(1.)  Tell  what  part  of  speech  it  is.     Why  ? 
(2.)  Tell  what  kind  of  adjective.     Why  ? 

(3.)  Compare  it,  and  give  the  degree,  (if  a  qualifying  adjective.) 
(4.)  Tell  to  what  noun  it  belongs. 
(5.)  Give  the  rule. 

MODELS  FOR  PARSING. 

"  The  faithful  man  will  be  rewarded." 

Faithful  is  an  adjective  ;  it  is  usei  to  limit  or  qualify  a  nou*  ;  qualifying, 


ETYMOLOGY —  PRONOUNS. 


89 


it  denotes  qunlity;  It  \$  compared j  positive  faithful,  eompnm- 
tive  more  faithful,  superlative  most  faithful ;  it  ia  in  the  posi- 
tive degree,  and  belongs  to  man,  according  to  Rule  V.  (Re- 
peat it.) 

"  Her  house  is  larger  than  mine." 

Larger  .  is  an  adjective;  it  is  used  to  limit  or  qualify  a  noun;  qualifying, 
it  denotes  quality;  it  is  compared;  positive  large,  comparative 
larger,  superlative  largest;  it  is  in  the  comparative  degree ;^i* 
shows  a  higher  degree  of  the  quality  than  the  positive  does,  and 
belongs  to  house,  according  to  Rule  V.     (Repeat  it.) 

"  She  is  worthy  of  the  highest  praise." 

Highest  .  is  an  adjective  ;  it  is  used  to  limit  or  qualify  a  noun  ;  qualifying ; 
it  denotes  quality;  it  is  compared;  positive  high,  comparative, 
higher,  superlative  highest '  ;  it  is  in  the  superlative  degree;  it 
shows  the  highest  degree  of  the  quality,  and  belongs  to  praise, 
according  to  Rule  V.     (Repeat  it.) 

"  The  rose  is  a  beautiful  flower." 

The  ...  is  an  adjective ;  (definite  article;)  it  is  used  to  limit  or  qualify  a 
noun;  limiting  ;  it  limits  without  denoting  quality;  it  belongs  to 
rose,  according  to  Rule  V.     (Repeat  it.) 

"A  treo  has  fallen." 

A  ....  is  an  adjective,  (indefinite  article;)  it  is  used  to  limit  or  qualify 
a  noun;  limiting ;  it  limits  without  denoting  quality;  it  belongs 
to  tree,  according  to  Rule  V.     (Repeat  it.) 

"  Three  birds  were  killed." 

Three  .  .  is  an  adjective  ;  it  is  used  to  limit  or  qualify  a  noun ;  limiting, 
(numeral);  it  limits  without  denoting  quality;  it  belongs  to 
birds,  according  to  Puiie  V.     (Repeat  it.) 

"  Give  me  this  apple,  and  I  will  give  you  that." 

That  ...  is  an  adjective;  it  is  used  to  limit  the  noun  apple,  understood;  or 
it  is  used  as  a  noun,  in  the  third  person,  singular  number,  and 
objective  case,  and  is  the  object  of  the  verb  give,  according  to 
Rule  VIII. 

"  The  kingdom  of  heaven  suffcreth  violence,  and  the  violent  take  it  by 
force." 

Violent .  is  an  adjective  ;  it  belongs  to  persons,  understood ;  or  it  is  used  as 
a  noun,  of  the  third  person,  plural  number,  nominative  case,  and 
is  the  subject  of  the  proposition,  the  violent  take,  according  to 
Rule  I.     (Repeat  it.) 


PRONOUNS. 

ORAL   EXERCISE. 

"  David  gave  David's  book  to  Ellen  ;  and  Ellen  gave  David's  book  to 
Ellen's  father;  and  Ellen's  father  thanked  Ellen  that  Ellen  had  given 
David's  book  to  Ellen's  father."  What  word  is  repealed  in  the  first  part 
of  this  sectence?     Ans.  David's.     What  word  can  you  use  instead  of  it? 


40  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

Ans  II is.  Repeat  the  expression,  and  substitute  his  in  place  of  David's 
Will  you  give  the  second  part  so  as  to  avoid  repetition  ?  Ans.  And  shi 
gave  it  to  her  father.  What  does  she  take  the  place  of?  Ans.  Ellen. 
What  does  it  take  the  place  of?  Ans.  David's  book.  What  does  her  take 
the  place  of  ?  Ans.  Ellen's.  How  can  you  better  express  the  third  part  ? 
Ans.  By  saying,  And  he  thanked  her,  that  she  had  given  it  to  him. 
Tell  what  each  of  these  little  words  stands  for. .  Tell  what  words  are 
displaced,  and  what  part  of  speech  they  are.  Now,  since  each  new  word 
stands  for  a  noun,  we  need  some  word  which  shall  mean  for  noun.  What 
word  can  you  give  ?  Ans.  Pronoun.  Then  he,  his,  him,  she,  her,  and  it 
are  pronouns.  If  a  boy  by  the  name  of  Charles  should  say,  meaning  him- 
self, "  Charles  is  studying  arithmetic,"  what  change  must  he  make  to  show 
that  he  means  himself  ?  Ans.  He  must  use  /  instead  of  his  own  name  • 
I  am  studying  arithmetic.  What  part  of  speech  is  I?  What  person  is  it  ? 
Why  ?  If  you  were  to  say,  Charles  is  studying  arithmetic,  what  change 
must  you  make  to  show  that  you  spoke  these  words  to  Charles  ?  Ans. 
You  are  studying  arithmetic,  Then,  what  part  of  speech  is  yout  What 
person  ?    Why  ?     Of  what  person  is  he  t  she  f  it  1  lie  f  him  f  his  t 

A  pronoun  is  a  word  which  takes  the  place  of  a  noun ; 
as,  "  The  farmer  ploughs  Ms  field  ;  he  reaps  Ms  wheat,  and 
gathers  it  into  Ms  barn." 

Hem.  1.  — The  pronoun  is  used  instead  of  the  noun,  — 

(1.)  When  the  object  referred  to  is  both  known,  and  has  been  previously 
mentioned;  as,  "  David  came  to  his  house  in  Jerusalem."  "Here  is  the 
pencil  for  which  I  was  looking." 

(2.)  When  the  object  referred  to  is  knoion,  but  not  (necessarily)  pre- 
viously mentioned;  as,  "  /have  the  memorial  which  you  gave  me." 

(3.)  When  the  object  referred  to  is  neither  known  nor  has  been  pre- 
viously mentioned  ;  as,  "  Who  comes  yonder  ?  " 

Rem.  2.  —  The  personal  pronouns  are  used  to  represent  some  relation 
to  the  speaker.  Those  of  the  first  and  second  persons  can  scarcely  be  said 
to  represent  the  name  of  the  speaker,  or  of  the  hearer  at  all,  since  they 
may  be  used  when  the  name  is  unknown.  They  are  employed  to  show  a 
^•elation  rather  than  a  name.  Those  of  the  third  person  represent  as  well 
the  name  of  some  person  or  thing  as  its  relation  to  the  speaker.  They 
enable  us  to  avoid  repeating  it ;  they  also  show  its  relation  in  regard  to 
sex,  (gender,)  and  its  syntactic  relation,  (case.) 

Hem.  3.  —  The  noun  for  which  a  pronoun  stands  is  called  the  antece- 
ient;  as,  "  The  world,  hiivhich  they  are  placed,  opens  with  all  its  wonders 
upon  their  eyes."  The  antecedent  may  be  a  phrase  or  an  entire  proposi- 
tion ;  as,  "  To  believe  the  report,  which  is  the  thing  you  desire,  would  be 
offensive  to  one  of  the  noblest  of  men."  "  The  servant  opened  the  window 
which  was  strictly  forbidden." 

Rem.  4.  — The  antecedent  of  the  personal  pronouns  of  the  first  and  sec- 
ond persons  is  always  supposed  to  be  present,  and  consequently  seldom 
named  ;  that  of  the  third  person  is  usually  expressed.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, a  personal  or  an  interrogative  pronoun  is  employed  without  an  ante- 
cedent, and  so  limited  by  a  relative  and  its  clause,  as  to  give  to  the  whole 
the  effect  of  a  single  name ;  as,  "  He  who  sways  the  minds  of  men  by  his 
eioqv.erxe,"  i.  e.,  the  orator,  "  exerts  the  highest  human  power."  "  \V7io, 
that  marks  the  fire  still  sparkling  in  each  eye,  but  would  deem  their  bosoms 
burned  anew  ?  "  Sometimes  the  antecedent  pronoun,  in  such  cases,  is  omit- 
ted, or  included  in  the  relative  ;  as,  "  Who  would  be  free,  themselves  must 
itrike  the  blow."    "  Who  steals  my  purse  steals  trash." 


ETYMOLOGY PERSONAL     PRONOUNS.  41 

Rem.  5.  —  The  pronoun  stands  not  merely  for  a  noun,  hut  for  a  noun  as 
restricted  by  modifying  words  ;  as,  "  We  saw  the  little  deformed  boy  whc 
watched  at  the  gate,  and  pitied  him,"  i.  e.,  the  little  deformed  boy  wlw 
watched  at  the  gate. 

Rem.  6.  —  The  antecedent,  as  the  term  indicates,  is  something  going 
before  ;  but  as  an  interrogative  pronoun  inquires  for  an  object  as  yet  un- 
known, the  name  of  it  Cannot  be  used  before  the  pronoun,  but  must  follow 
it.  It  might  then  more  properly  be  called  the  subsequent ;  as,  "IVhafh&ve 
vdu  brought  ?  "    "  The  cloak." 


CLASSES  OF  PRONOUNS. 

Pronouns  are  divided  into  three  classes — personal,  rela 
iive,  and  interrogative 

PERSONAL   PRONOUNS. 

A  personal  pronoun  is  used  both  to  represent  a  noun,  and 
to  show  whether  it  is  of  the  first,  second,  or  third  person. 

/(plural  we)  is  of  the  first  person;  thou  (plural  ye  or 
you)  is  of  the  second  person  ;  he,  she,  and  it  (plural  they) 
are  of  the  third  person,  masculine,  feminine,  and  neuter, 
respectively. 

The  compound  personal  pronouns  are,  first  person,  my 
self,  (plural  ourselves  ;)  second  person,  thyself,  (plural  your 
selves ;)  third  person,  (masculine)  himself,  (feminine)  hei 
self,  (neuter)  itself,  (plural  themselves.) 

To  pronouns,  like  the  nouns  for  "which  they  stand,  belong; 
Person,  Number,  Gender,  and  Case. 

Rem.  1.  —  The  personal  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  person  repre- 
sent the  speaker  or  the  hearer.  The  gender  is  supposed  to  be  known, 
and  is  not  indicated  by  the  form  of  the  pronoun,  while  that  of  the  third 
person  is  represented  by  one  of  the  forms,  he,  she,  or  it. 

Rem.  2. — It  is  often  used  in  a  vague  sense,  as  the  subject  of  verbs 
descriptive  of  the  weather ;  as,  "  It  rains."  "  It  thunders."  It  is  used  aa 
an  expletive,  (1.)  as  the  object  of  a  verb;  as,  "  Come  and  trip  it  as  you 
go ;  "  (2.)  to  introduce  a  sentence  whose  subject  is  placed  after  the  predicate. 
"  It  is  pleasant  to  see  the  sun."  "  It  has  been  ascertained,  that  water  is 
composed  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen."  It  is  used  as  subject  to  represents 
noun  or  pronoun  as  attribute,  of  any  number,  gender,  or  person  ;  as,  "  It 
is  /."     "  It  is  they."     "  It  is  James."     "  It  is  she." 

Rem.  3. — The  compound  personal  pronouns  are  seldom,  if  ever,  used 

*s  the  subject  of  a  proposition,  though  they  may  be  used  in  apposition 

with  it;  as,  "He  himself  knows  not  whereof  he  affirms.     When  used   as 

the  object  of  a  transitive  -verb,  they  are  called  reflexive,  because  the  act 

4* 


42  ENGLISH     GUAM  MAR. 

of  the  agent  falls  back  upon  himself;  as,  "  The  boy  struck  himself."  Eacg 
other  and  one  another  in  the  same  relation  are  sometimes  called  reciprocal 
pronouns  ;  as,  "  The  boys  struck  each  other." 

Hem.  4.  —  Formerly  thou  was  used  in  addressing  a  single  individual, 
and  a  corresponding  form  of  the  verb  was  used  ;  as,  "  Thou  singest ;  "  but 
gradually  you  has  come  to  take  its  place,  till  the  use  of  thoti,  except  in 
the  solemn  style,  is  now  wholly  discontinued.  You,  therefore,  is  both  sin- 
gular and  plural  in  its  application,  but  the  verb  does  not  change  its  form  ; 
it  invariably  takes  the  plural  form  ;  as,  "  You  (meaning  one)  write,"  not 
writest.* 

EXERCISE. 

Count  the  words  in  the  following  sentences  ;  then  substitute  personal  pro- 
nouns, and  see  hoio  many  words  you  gain  thereby :  — ■ 

The  savages  of  North  America  spent  the  time  of  tJie  savages  of  North 
America  in  hunting,  and  the  wives  of  the  savages  of  North  America  spent 
the  time  of  the  wives  of  the  savages  of  North  America  in  preparing  food  for 
the  husbands  of  the  wives  of  the  savages  of  North  America. 

Substitute  the  nouns  and  their  modifying  words  for  the  pronouns  in  the 
following  sentences :  — 

At  this  time,  the  commander  of  the  American  forces  and  his  army  took 
post  at  Harlem  ;  he  now  sought  to  ascertain  the  state  of  his  enemy's  forces 
on  Long  Island.  Captain  Nathan  Hale  volunteered  Jiis  services  ;  he  en- 
tered the  British  army  in  disguise.  On  his  return,  he  was  apprehended 
and  sent  to  the  cruel  Marshal  Cunningham,  by  whom  he  was  ordered  to 
execution  without  a  trial. 

Alter  the  following  sentences  so  as  to  make  the  szibjects  represent,  first  the 
speaker,  then  the  hearer  :  — 

John  wrote  a  letter.  Jacob  loved  Joseph.  Paul  preached  at  Athens. 
He  came  to  the  rescue.  They  sailed  at  noon.  The  king  was  sick.  Susan 
leaves  her  studies.     The  horse  ran  away.    Washington  loved  the  truth. 

Name  the  pronouns  in  the  following,  and  tell  what  words  they  stand 
for.— 

Jacob  loved  his  son  Joseph,  and  gave  him  a  coat  of  many  colors.  Peter 
denied  his  Master ;  he  afterwards  went  and  wept  bitterly.  Let  him  that 
thinketh  he  standeth  take  heed  lest  he  fall.  A  man's  heart  deviseth  Iris 
way  ;  but  the  Lord  directeth  his  steps. 

Collect  all  the  eironeotis  expressions  which  you  hear  to-day,  write  them 
down,  correct  them,  and  be  careful  not  to  tcse  them  yourself. 


DECLENSION   OF  THE  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 

The  personal  pronouns  are  thus  declined  :  — 
First  Person. 

Sing.  Flu. 

Norn.  I,  We, 

Poss.  My  or  mine,  Our  or  ours, 

Obj.  Me ;  Us. 

*  The  Friends  or  Quakers  still  u?e  thou,  more  commonly  thee,  in  common  conven 

wtion 


ETYMOLOGY  —  PERSONAL    PRONOUNS. 


43 


Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


Second  Person. 
Sing. 
Thou, 

Thy  or  thine, 
Thee; 


Flu. 
Ye  or  you, 
Your  or  yours, 
You. 


Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


Third  Person.    Masculine. 


Sing. 
He, 
His, 
Him; 


Plu. 
They, 

Then-  or  theirs, 
Them. 


Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


Third  Person.    Feminine. 


She, 

Her  or  hers, 

Her; 


Plu. 
They, 

Their  or  theirs, 
Them. 


Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


Thiri>  Person. 

Sing. 
It, 

Its, 
It; 


Neuter. 


Flu. 
They, 

Their  or  theirs  ^ 
Them. 


Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


First  Person. 

Sing. 

Myself, 


Myself; 


Plu. 
Ourselves, 


Ourselves 


Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


Sing. 

Mas. 
Nom.        Himself, 
Poss         


Obj. 


Second  Person. 

Sing. 
Thyself, 


Thyself; 


Third  Person. 


Flu. 
Yourselves, 

Yourselves. 


Herself, 


Himself;         Herself; 


JVeut 
Itself, 

Itself; 


Plu 


Themselves. 


Rem.  1.  —  Of  the  possessives,  my,  thy,  her,  our,  your,  their,  are  used 
*hen  the  noun  is  expressed ;  mine,  thine,  hers,  ours,  yours,  and  theirs, 
When  it  is  understood,  and  the  latter  must  be  changed  to' the  former  -when- 
ever the  noun  is  supplied.  "  That  book  is  yours;  this  is  mine."  "  Tha 
dook  is  your  Dook ;  this  is  my  book." 

Rem.  2.  —  When  mine,  thine,  &c,  are  used  as  in  the  above  example, 
they  seem  to  perform  a  double  office  ;  first,  to  represent  the  speaker,  hear* 
er,  or  person  spoken  of,  as  a  possessor ;  and,  secondly,  like  other  limiting 
or  qualifying  words,  when  the  l.oun  is  understood,  to  represent  or  stand  for 


M  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR 

that  noun,  not  as  a  pronoun  docs,  but  as  an  adjective.  Thus  we  saj 
"  This  [book]  is  an  arithmetic  ;J/uU  [book]  is  a  geography."  "  The  via 
lent  [persons]  take  it  by  force."  "  Mine  [my  task]  was  an  easy  task.'' 
Properly,  neither  of  the  above  words  is  a  noun.  The  first  three  are  adjec- 
tives used  to  limit  the  noun  understood,  which  follows  them,  and  the  last 
a  personal  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case,  used  to  limit  the  noun  task,  un- 
derstood. If  it  is  ever  proper  to  say  that  this,  that,  or  violent  are  used  as 
nouns,  it  is  equally  so  of  the  word  mine,  not  in  its  pronominal,  but  in  iUr 
adjective  office. 

EXERCISE. 


In  parsing  a  pronoun,  — 

(1.)  Tell  what  part  of  speech  it  is.    Why  ? 

(2.)  Tell  what  kind  of  pronoun.    Why  ? 

(3.)  Tell  what  its  antecedent  is. 

(4.)  Decline  it. 

(5.)  Give  the  person,  number,  gender.     Why  5 

(6.)  Rule  for  person,  number,  gender.     Why  ? 

(7.)  Case  and  construction.  n 

(8.)  Rule  for  construction. 

Note.  —  In  parsing,  let  the  pupil  follow  this  order,  and  as  soon  as  po3si 
Die,  without  any  question  from  the  teacher.  The  pronoun  is  parsed  very 
much  like  the  noun. 

Study  the  following  models  for  parsing  :  — 

"David  brought  his  book,  and  laid  it  on  the  table." 

His  .  is  a  pronoun ;  it  takes  the  place  of  a  noun  ;  perso)ial;  it  is  used  both 
to  represent  a  noun,  and  to  show  whether  it  is  of  the  first,  second, 
or  third  person ;  it  refers  to  David's  for  its  antecedent ;  (singular, 
nominative  he,  possessive  his,  objective  him;  plural,  nominative 
they,  possessive  their  or  theirs,  objective  them  ;)  it  is  of  the  third  per- 
son, singular  number,  masculine  gender,  because  its  antecedent  is  . 
(Rule  III.  "  A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent  in  gender, 
number,  and  person;")  possessive  case,  and  is  used  to  limit  book,\>y 
denoting  possession,  according  to  Rule  VII.     (Repeat  it.) 

It  .  .  is  a  pronoun,  (why?)  persona),  (why?)  it  has  .book  for  its  antece- 
dent ;  decline  it ;  "is  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter  gen~ 
der,  because  its  antecedent  book  is,  (Rule  III.,)  and  objective  case. 
Rule  VIII.     (Repeat  the  rule.) 

"  The  messenger  himself  revealed  the  treachery." 

Himself .  is  a  pronoun,  (why?)  compound,  composed  of  him  and  self,  it 
has  messenger  for  its  antecedent ;  third  person,  singular  number, 
masculine  gender,  because  its  antecedent  is,  (Rule  III.,)  nomina- 
tive case  and  used  to  identify  or  explain  messenger,  according  to 
RuleVt 

Parse  the  personal  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences  :  — 

Joseph  knew  his  brethren,  but  they  knew  not  him.     Jane  dropped  her 

fan.  ana  ner  brother  gave  it  to  her  again.     We  cannot  see  the  stars  when 

the  light  of  the  sun  overpowers  them.     Thou  shalt  sec  me  hereafter.     I 

Know  you  will  receive  the  child  and  love  it      Our  house  is  at  your  service 


ETYMOLOGY — RELATIVE  PRONOUNS.        45 

Do  thyself  no  harm.     The  king  found  himself  in  great  distress.      We 
must  keep  c  urselves  from  temptation.    I  myself  will  do  it. 

Write  Jive  sentences,  use  personal  pronouns  in  each,  and  then  parse  them 

Give  the  class,  person,  number,  gender,  (when  it  can  be  determined  by  tht 

form,)  and  case  of  the  folloioing pronouns  :  — 
I,  he,  his,  hers,  mine,  you,  thou,  they,  them,  us,  we,  myself,  himself, 

they,  herself,  me,  themselves,  ourselves,  my,  thee,  your,  thine,  herself, 

yourselves. 

Rewrite  and  correct  the  following  sentences  in  every  particular : — 
The  carpenter  broke  the  augur  liisself.  "When  i  went  to  school,  me  and 
my  sister  sarah  were  learned  how  to  use  capitals,  the  master  teached  us 
how  to  speak  correctly,  and  the  scholars,  writ  down  meny  lessons  their- 
selves.  we  always  had  good  times  a-criticizing  what  the  other  scholars 
had  wrote.  It  was  me,  that  disremembered  the  rules  for  changing  the  y  in 
dutys  and  glory fying,  and  f  in  sheafs,  wifes,  loafs,  fust,  i  reckoned  i 
knowed  'em,  but  it  'pears  i  didn't.  Them  words  that  I  have  here  koted, 
"marys  gownd"  from  marthas  slate  haint  got  no  capital  letter,  and 
she  don't  mind  the  rule  for  the  'sessive  case,  nathan  haint  doted  his  eyes, 
nor  crossed  his  teas,  and  his  lines  run  down  hill.  Samuel  offerred  to  'sist 
me  in  my  'rethmetic  if  i  would  learn  them  rules  for  spellin'. 

Collect  all  the  faulty  expressions  which  you  hear  to-day,  and  correct  them. 


RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

A  relative  pronoun  is  used  to  represent  a  preceding  noun 
or  pronoun,  called  the  antecedent ;  as,  "  Those  who  wish  for 
favors  must  assist  others." 

Hem.  1.  —  The  relative,  when  used  only  as  a  pronoun,  follows  the  ante- 
cedent ;  when  used  both  as  a  limiting  adjective  and  a  pronoun,  it  always 
precedes  it ;  as,  "  I  will  give  you  ichat  money  I  have." 

Rem.  2.  —  The  following  distinctions  will  show  the  difference  between  a 
relative  and  a  personal  pronoun  :  — 

(1.)  The  relative  refers  to  an  object  always  known,  and  either  previously 
mentioned,  or  so  clearly  implied  as  to  need  no  mention ;  the  personal 
pronouns  refer  always  to  an  object  known,  and  in  the  third  person,  to  an 
object  previously  mentioned,  but  in  the  first  and  second  persons,  to  an  ob 
iect  not  previously  mentioned. 

(2.)  The  personal  pronouns  have  a  distinct  form  for  each  grammatical 
person ;  I  for  the  first,  thou  or  yoxi  for  the  second,  and  he,  she,  or  it  for 
the  third.  The  relative  pronouns  do  not  change  their  form  to  represent 
person. 

(3.)  The  essential  difference  is  seen  in  their  use  in  construction.  The 
personal  pronoun  may  represent  the  subject  of  an  independent  sentence  ; 
the  relative  never ;  as,  "  He  is  present."  "  Which  is  important."  Tho 
first  is  a  complete  sentence  ;  the  second  needs  some  word,  as  measure., 
(which  is  important,)  on  which  it  may  depend. 

Rem.  3.  —  The  relative  serves  two  purposes  :  one,  as  a  pronoun  to  rep 
resent  a  noun  in  any  relation  ;  the  other,  as  a  connective  joining  the  rela 
tive  clause  to  the  antecedent.  In  this  use  it  may  be  considered  as  a  kind  of 
auxiliary,  employed  to  convert  an  independent  proposition  into  a  dependent 


46  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

one,  and  to  adapt  it,  as  an  adjective,  to  modify  some  antecedent  noun ;  as 
for  example,  in  speaking  of  -a  cloud,  if  we  say," "  It  is  dark,"  the  expression 
is  an  independent  sentence  ;  but  if  we  say,  "  which  is  dark,"  the  expression 
is  still  a  proposition,  but  not  a  sentence  ;  it  is  now,  by  the  aid  of  whicht 
fitted  to  limit  the  noun  cloud;  thus,  "  The  cloud  which  is  dark." 


SIMPLE  RELATIVES. 

The  simple  relatives  are,  who,  which,  that,  and  ivhat. 

Who  is  used  to  represent  persons  ;  which  and  what,  to  rep* 

resent  things ;  and  that,  to  represent  both  persons  and  things. 

Rem.  1.  —  The  antecedent  is  the  word  for  which  the  pronoun  stands; 
it  is  that  on  which  the  relative  clause  depends,  and  is  either  a  definite  or 
an  indefinite  object. 

Rem.  2.  —  Wlio,  which,  and  that  usually  refer  to  a  definite  antecedent ; 
as,  "  The  man  who  came."  "  The  horse  which  died."  "  The  tree  that 
fell."  Lithe  sentence,  "Who  steals  my  purse  steals  trash,"  who  refers 
to  an  indefinite  antecedent.  What  may  refer  cither  to  a  definite  or  an  in- 
definite antecedent;  as,  "  I  gave  him  what  money  he  wanted,"  (definite.) 
"  I  gave  him  what  [things]  he  wanted,"  (indefinite.)  When  the  antece- 
dent is  indefinite,  the  relative  stands  alone. 

Rem.  3.  —  Wliat,  in  addition  to  the  other  functions  of  a  relative,  per- 
forms that  of  a  limiting  adjective,  and  is,  hence,  placed  before  the  noun 
which  it  limits,  and  which,  as  a  pronoun,  it  also  represents ;  as,  "  He 
had  what  furniture  was  left "  =  He  had  that  furniture  which  was  left 
When  the  noun  to  which,  as  an  adjective,  it  belongs,  is  indefinite,  and 
therefore  not  expressed,  what  takes  its  place,  and  is  an  adjective  used  as  3 
noun,  (see  Adjective  used  as  a  noun,  p.  33,)  and  may  be  parsed,  first,  ag 
the  indefinite  antecedent,  and,  secondly,  as  a  relative. 

Rem.  4.  —  The  word  that  is  a  relative  only  when  who  ox  which  can  be 
substituted  for  it ;  as,  "  He  that  (who)  gettcth  wisdom  loveth  his  own 
soul."  "What  private  grief  they  have,  alas  !  I  know  not,  that  ftohich) 
made  them  do  it."  It  is  a  pronominal  adjective  when  immediately  followed 
by  a  noun  expressed  or  understood  ;  as,  "  That  book."  It  is  a  subordi- 
nate conjunction  when  it  joins  a  dependent  clause  to  some  part  of  a  princi 
pal ;  as,  "  I  know  that  my  Redeemer  liveth." 

Rem.  5.  —  What  is  a  relative,  (1.)  when  it  can  be  changed  into  that 
which;  as,  "It  is  what  (that  which)  I  wanted;"  (2.)  when  it  both  limits 
and  relates  to  a  noun ;  as,  "What  ore  was  found,  was  very  poor"  =  That 
ore  which  was  found,  &c.  It  is  an  interrogative  pronoun,  when  used  alone 
(belonging  to  an  indefinite  object)  to  ask  a  question;  as,  "  What  [things] 
do  you  want  ?"  It  is  an  interrogative  adjective  when  used  to  limit  a  noun, 
(a  definite  object,)  and  also  to  ask  a  question  ;  as,  "  What  excuse  does  he 
render?"  It  is  an  interjection  when  it  denotes  an  exclamation;  as. 
"  What  !  have  you  come?" 

Rem.  6. — When  that  is  used  as  the  object  of  a  preposition,  the  latter 
is  always  placed  at  the  end  of  the  clause;  and  that  must  be  changed  to 
whom  or  which  whenever  the  preposition  precedes  j  as,  "It  was  James 
that  I  depended  upon"  =  upon  whom  I  depended. 

Rem.  7.  —  By  an  ellipsis  of  the  relative,  ax,  after  such,  many,  and  same, 
seems  to  take  its  place,  and  may  be  regarded  as  a  relative,  though,  pro- 
perly speaking,  it  is  never  a  relative  ;  as,  "  The  Lord  added  to  the  church 
daily,  such  as  [were  those  who]  should  be  saved." 


ETYMOLOGY  COMPOUND     RELATIVES.  4* 

COMPOUND   RELATIVES. 

The  compound  relatives  are  whoever,  whosoever,  whichever^ 
whichsoever,  whatever,  and  whatsoever. 

Rem.  1.  —  These  are  formed  from  the  simple  relatives  by  adding  the  ad 
Verbs  ever  and  soever. 

Rem.  2. —  Whoever  and  whosoever  refer  to  some  indefinite  antecedent, 
as  he,  the  person,  anyone,  and  are  equivalent  to  anyone  who ;  as,  "  Who- 
ever hopes  a  faultless  piece  to  see."  Whichever  and  whichsoever  refer  to 
a  definite  object,  to  which  they  belong  as  adjectives  ;  as,  "  Whichever  way 
you  take  will  lead  to  the  city."  They  are  equivalent  to  any  —  which. 
Whatever  and  whatsoever  belong,  as  adjectives,  either  to  a  definite  or  an  in- 
definite object,  and  relate,  as  pronouns,  to  the  same,  (see  Rem.  3,  above;) 
as,  "  We  are  interested  in  ichatever  occupation  you  follow."  "  WJaitsoever 
is  more  than  these  comcth  of  evil."  They  are  equivalent  to  that  —  which, 
or  any  thing  —  which. 

DECLENSION  OF  RELATIVE  AND  INTERROGATIVE  PROxNOUNS 

Sing,  tf  Flu.  Siiijr.  $  Plu. 

Nom.  Who,  Which, 

Poss.  Whose,  Whose, 

Obj.  Whom  J  Which. 

That  and  wJiat  have  no  variation. 

EXERCISE. 

Learn  the  following  models  for  parsing :  — 

M  The  man  who  is  faithfully  attached  to  religion,  may  be  relied  on  with 
confidence." 

WJio  .  is  a  pronoun,  (why  ?)  relative,  (why  ?)  it  has  man  for  its  antece- 
dent; nominative  who,  possessive  whose,  objective  whom;  plural, 
the  same ;  third  person,  singular  number,  tnascidine  gender,  be- 
cause its  antecedent  is,  (Rule  III.  Repeat  it,)  nominative  case,  and 
used  as  the  subject  of  the  proposition,  "  who  is  attached."  Rule  I. 
(Repeat  it.) 

"  Cherish  true  patriotism,  whose  root  is  benevolence." 

Whose  is  a  relative  pronoun ;  it  has  patriotism  for  its  antecedent ;  nomina- 
tive who,  &c. ;  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter  gender,  (Rule 
III.  Repeat  it,)  2X>ssessive  case,  and  is  used  to  limit  root  by  d«»- 
no ting  possession.    Rule  VII.     (Repeat  it.) 

«  Compassion  is  an  emotion  of  which  we  should  never  be  ashamed." 

Which  is  a  relative  pronoun,  (antecedent,  decline,  person,  number,  gen 
der,  Rule  III.,)  objective  case,  and  used  as  the  object  of  the  preposi- 
tion of.    Rule  XIII. 

"  Here  is  the  sofa  that  he  sat  upon." 

Thai  .  is  a  relative  pronoun,  (antecedent,  decline,  person,  number,  gen 
der,  Rule  III.,)  objective  case,  and  used  as  the  object  of  the  preposi 
tion  upon.    (See  Rem.  6,  p.  46.) 


48  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

"  I  have  ascertained  what  lesson  we  must  learn." 

What  ,  is  &pro?v?tin,  used  both  as  an  adjective  and  a  pronoun  ;  as  an  adjec> 
tive  it  belongs  to  lesson,  according  to  Rule  V. ;  (repeat  it . )  as  a 
pronoun,  it  is  a  relative,  and  relates  to  lesson  for  its  antecedent ; 
third  person,  singular  number,  neuter  gender,  Rule  III.,  objective 
case,  and  is  used  as  the  object  of  the  verb  must  learn,  accord- 
ing to  Rule  VIII.     (Repeat  it.) 

"  I  have  ascertained  what  we  must  learn." 

What .  is  &  pronoun,  used  both  as  an  adjective  and  a  pronoun  ;  as  an  ad- 
jective it  belongs  to  some  noun  (thing)  understood,  and  hence  may 
be  taken  as  a  noun,  (see  model  for  parsing  that,  p.  39  ;)  indeclinable, 
third  person,  singular  number,  neuter  gender,  objective  case,  and  is 
used  as  the  object  of  have  ascertained.  Rule  VIII.  As  a  pronoun, 
it  is  a  relative,  relating  to  some  indefinite  antecedent  (thing)  un- 
derstood, (see  Rem.  3,  p.  46,)  or  to  what,  representing  thing,  and  re- 
garded as  the  antecedent,  indeclinable,  third  person,  singular  mem- 
ber, neuter  gender,  objective  case,  and  used  as  the  object  of  must 
learn.    Rule  Vltl. 

"  "We  will  furnish  him  with  ichatever  clothing  he  may  need." 

Whatever  is  a  compound  relative,  composed  of  what  and  ever.     (Imitate 
the  first  model  for  what.) 

"  "We  provide  tchatever  may  be  needed." 
Whatever  is  a  compound  relative.     (Imitate  the  second  model  for  what.) 

Point  out  and  parse  the  relative  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences  :  — 
The  child  who  is  obedient  will  be  beloved.  The  bird  that  built  her  nest 
on  the  tree  was  killed.  The  apples  which  you  gave  me  are  sour.  The 
man  whom  you  saw  was  my  brother.  The  boat  in  which  we  sailed 
has  been  sold.  The  grass  that  was  mowed  by  the  farmer,  was  soon  withered. 
The  gentleman  whose  kindness  we  experienced,  was  a  teacher.  He  that 
is  slow  to  wrath,  is  of  great  understanding. 

Point  out  the  antecedents  in  tlie  examples  above. 

Point  out  and  parse  the  compound  relatives  in  the  following  examples  :  — 

"Whatsoever  ye  would  that  men  should  do  to  you,  do  ye  even  so  to  them 

Whatever  is,  is  right.     Whatsoever  he  saith  unto  you,  do  it.     Whoever 

seeks  the  good  of  others,  will  himself  be  blest.     Darkness  besets  me,  which 

ever  way  I  turn. 

Correct  the  following  examples  :  — 

The  cow  whom  my  father  bought,  has  strayed  away.  The  boy  whicn 
sets  on  the  seat  yender  hasn't  got  his  sums  did.  The  sun  lays  into  our 
south  winder  beautiful.  This  is  the  man  who  we  sent  for.  The  boy  who  I 
see  at  school  yesterday  was  e'en-a'  most  as  tall  agin  as  i  be.  '  This  'ere 
task  of  'ritin'  sentences  is  putty  hard  for  one  that  don't  know  no  more  of 
the  grammar  book  than  i  does,    howsomever  i  never  gives  up  for  trifles 


INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

The  interrogative  pronouns  are  used  in  asking  questions. 
They  are  who,  used  to  inquire  for  persons ;  what  and  which, 


ETK  MOLOGY PRON  OUNS.  49 

for  things  ,  as,  "  Wlio  gave  thee  that  authority    "     "  Which 
house  does  he  live  in?"     "  What  have  I  to  do  with  thee  ?  " 

Rem.  1.  —  When  a  definite  object  is  inquired  for,  what  and  which  are 
adjectives  used  to  limit  the  objects  inquired  for ;  as,  "  What  books  do  you 
want  ?  '  "  Which  road  shall  we  take  ?  "  When  an  indefinite  object  is  in- 
quired for,  the  interrogative  takes  its  place,  or  belongs  to  it,  understood  \ 
as,  "  What  (thing)  do  j  ou  want  ?  " 

Rem.  2.  —  When  an  interrogative  sentence  is  quoted,  and  incorporated 
into  another  sentence,  it  loses  much  of  its  interrogative  character ;  the 
interrogative  pronoun  becomes  a  connective,  and  as  the  incorporated  clause 
is  an  unanswered  question,  the  pronoun  refers  to  some  person  or  thing 
both  unknoxcn  and  unmentioned.  It  may  therefore  be  called  an  indefinite 
interrogative  pronoun.  Example.  "  Who  is  concealed  in  the  garden  ?"  The 
name  bas  not  been  mentioned,  and  although  he  may  be  a  familiar  friend.  *?t 
as  the  concealed,  one,  he  is  unknown.  The  answer,  therefore,  must  be,  ■•  I 
do  not  know  who  is  concealed  in  the  garden."  Compare  this  with,  "  I  do 
not  know  him  who  is  concealed  in  the  garden."  Here  who  is  a  relative 
pronoun  having  him  for  its  antecedent. 

Rem.  3.  —  Besides  pronouns,  various  interrogative  adverbs  are  used  in 
asking  questions  ;  as,  Why  f     Where  f     When  t    Hoio  t 


EXERCISE. 

Point  out  the  interrogative  pronouns  in  the  following  examples  .  — 
Who  has  learned  his  lesson  ?     "Which  seat  do  you  prefer  ?     "What  have 
you  found  in  the  garden  ?     For  what  are  you  punished  ?     Whose  school 
do  you  attend  ?    Who  went  with  you  ?     Whom  do  you  follow  ?    Which 
way  has  she  gone  ? 

Tell  which  of  the  above  examples  are  pronouns,  and  which  adjectives. 
(See  Rem.  1.) 

Tell  which  of  the  folloicing  pronmvns  are  relative,  which  interrogative :  — 
He  whose  image  thou  art.  From  what  fountain  flowed  their  light  ? 
What  title  dost  thou  bear  ?  Whose  genius  had  angelic  wings.  What 
readiest  way  would  bring  me  to  the  place?  Who  found  the  flower?  I 
am  he  whom  ye  seek  ?  He  found  the  book  for  which  I  sent  him.  Of 
whom  do  you  speak  ?      That  which  was  lost  is  found. 

Correct  the  following  examples  :  — 

Who   do  you  want  ?    Whom  is  it  ?     Who  do  you  follow  ?    Who  are 
you  looking  for  ? 

Rewrite  the  following  sentences,  and  correct  them  in  all  respects  : — 
Why  don't  you  eat  nothin'  ?  ridin'  don't  agree  with  you  i  guess, 
taint  so  in  New  York.  Do  you  go  on  your  own  hook  ?  Nice  go- 
ings on,  I  dare  say,  Mr.  Caudle.  The  Senate  has  gone  it  strong  on  th« 
mileage.  You  cant  ask  me  for  nothin  i  haint  got.  She  did  it  real  nice. 
That  was  first  rate. 

Parse  the  above  examples  according  to  the  following  models  — 

"  Who  shall  separate  us  from  the  love  of  Christ  ?  " 

Who  .  is  a  pronoun,  (why  ?)  interrogative,  (why?)  its  antecedent  (subse- 
quent) is  not  expressed ;  nominative  who,  possessive  ichose,  ob- 
jective whom;  plural,  the  same;  third  person,  singidar  lumber, 
masculine  ge?ider,  because  its  antecedent  (subsequent^,  no  one  im- 

5 


50  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR- 

tlied)  is,  (Rule  III.  Repeat  it.)  nominative  case,  and  used  ti 
.ne  subject  of  th*.,  proposition,  "  who  snail  separate."  Itui  I 
(Repeat  it.) 

"  W?iose  books  have  you  found  ?  " 

Whose  h  an  interrogative  pronoun;  nominative  who,  &c.,  (person,  num 
her,  and  gender  depending  upon  the  answer,)  possessive  cast,  and 
is  used  to  limit  books  by  denoting  possession.  Rule  VII.  (Re- 
peat it.) 

"  WJiat  seek  ye  ? " 

What .  is  an  interrogative  pronoun ;  indeclinable  ;  third  person,  fnumbet 
and  gender  depending  on  the  answer, )  objective  case,  and  used  as 
the  object  of  the  verb.     Rule  VIII.     (Repeat  it.) 

"  What  lesson  shall  we  learn  ?  " 

What .  is  a  pronominal  adjective,  used  interrogatively,  and  belongs  to  lea 
son  for  which  it  inquires.    Rule  V. 


VERBS. 

ORAL   EXERCISE. 

Do  you  see  me  use  this  chalk  upon  the  board  ?  What  do  I  do  ?  Am. 
fou  write.  Put  this  answer  on  your  slates.  Now,  what  do  you  do  ? 
Ant.  We  write.  Let  all  who  have  written  the  words  raise  the  hand. 
What  do  you  do  now  ?  Ans.  We  raise  our  hands.  What  am  I  doing  now  ? 
(The  teacher  walks  towards  his  desk.)  Am.  You  are  walking.  When 
we  do  any  thing,  as  write,  walk,  or  raise  the  hand,  we  act,  and  the  word 
which  expresses  the  action  is  called  a  verb,  and  the  acting  person  or  thing 
is  called  the  subject.  What  can  a  lamb  do  ?  Ans.  Run,  frisk,  frolic,  jump, 
play.  Now  write  these  words  on  your  slates.  What  are  you  now  doing  ? 
Ans.  We  are  writing.  What  do  you  call  the  words  which  you  have  written  ? 
A?is.  Verbs.  What  is  the  subject  of  each  ?  WTho  speaks?  Ana.  Ellen  apeoka. 
What  do  you  call  speaks  t  What  can  a  horse  do  ?  Ans.  Run,  walk,  gallop, 
trot,  prance,  eat,  drink,  draw,  kick,  sleep.  What  kind  of  words  are  these  ? 
Ans.  Verbs.  What  is  the  subject  of  each  ?  Tell  what  a  bird,  ajish,  a  dog,  a 
toad,  a  bee,  can  do  ?  What  are  the  words  which  tell  what  they  do  ?  See  thia 
book ;  it  lies  upon  the  desk.  What  does  the  book  do  ?  Ans.  It  does  notJi  ■ 
inn.  True,  it  does  nothing,  but  what  tells  something  about  it  ?  Ans.  Lies. 
This  chair  stands  upon  the  floor.  What  does  the  chair  do  ?  Ans.  Noth- 
ing, What  tells  something  about  it?  Ans.  Stands.  When  words  are 
used  to  tell  or  say  what  state  things  are  in,  they  are  called  verba.  Wha* 
then,  aretes  and  stands  f  Ans.  Verbs.  (The  teacher  strikes  tipon  hie 
desk.)  What  does  the  desk  do  ?  Ans.  Nothing.  What  was  clone  tc 
the  desk  ?  Ans.  It  teas  struck.  (The  teacher  tears  a  piece  of  paper:) 
What  does  the  paper  do?  Ans.  Nothing.  Very  good  ;  but  what  is  dont 
to  the  paper  ?  Ans.  It  is  torn.  These  words,  which  teH  what  ia  done  to  au 
object,  are  called  verba.  What  does  the  blackboard  do  ?  Am.  Nothing.  It 
there  a  blackboard  ?  Ans.  There  is.  is  what?  Ans.  Is  a  blackboard.  Is 
there  a  desk  ?  Ans.  There  is.  Words  which  tell  what  is  or  exista  are 
vurbs.  Tell  the  verbs  in  these  examples,  and  then  learn  the  definition 
of  the  verb :  The  boy  plays.  The  girl  sleep?  The  lamp  is  broken 
There  is  a  slate  in  the  desk. 


ETYMOLOGY —   fZRBS EXERCISES.  51 

A  verb  is  a  word  which  expresses  being,  action,  or  state 
r  ,  be,  read,  sleep,  is  loved. 

Rem.  I.  —  The  being,  action,  or  state  may  be  affirmed,  assumed,  uf 
toed  abstractly;  as,  "George  rum."  "George  running."  "To  run." 
When  an  affirmation  is  made,  the  verb  is  either  the  predicate  or  copula  of 
the  proposition,  and  is  said  to  ha  finite  ;  when  the  action  of  the  verb  is  as- 
sumed,  it  takes  the  construction  of  the  adjective,  is  joined  to  the  subject, 
and  is  called  a  participle  •  when  it  is  used  abstractly,  it  is  separated  from 
the  subject,  and  being  unlimited  by  its  person  or  number,  it  is  said  to  be 
infinitive,  (unlimited. ) 

Rem.  2. —  Affirm,  as  here  used,  includes  an  absolute  declaration;  as, 
**  Emma  learns  ;  "  a  conditional  statement ;  as,  "  If  Emma  learns  ;  "  an  in- 
terrogation ;  as,  "  Does  Emma  learn  ? "  a  petition;  as,  "  May  Emma  learn ;  " 
a  command ;  as,  "  Emma,  learn." 

Rem.  3.  —  The  abstract  or  substantive  verb  is  the  simple  Be,  hav- 
ing no  other  power  or  value  than  to  assert  some  attribute  of  a  noun. 
When  the  attribute  is  a  quality,  this  verb  must  always  be  used ;  as,  "  Lead 
is  heavy ;  "  but  when  the  attribute  is  an  action,  it  may  blend  with  the  verb 
be,  and  then  both  become  one  word ;  as,  "  The  sun  is  rising."  "  The  suu 
rises."  The  combined  form  then  takes  the  name  of  verb,  and  undergoes 
inflections  to  represent  voice,  mode,  tense,  number,  and  person ;  in  all  other 
cases,  the  verb  to  be  undergoes  these  variations.  These  verbs  are  called 
uttributive,  because  to  the  pure  verb  they  join  an  attribute. 

Rem.  4.  —  The  verb  to  be  is  attributive,  whenever  it  is  used  to  assert  ex- 
istence ;  as,  "  There  was  a  man  sent  from  God."  Whc*.  thus  used,  the 
verb  is  commonly  followed  by  its  subject,  and  preceded  by  the  expletive 
"  there,"  which  serves  no  other  purpose  than  to  introduce  the  sentence 
and  indicate  this  peculiarity  of  the  verb. 

Every  finite  verb  represents  some  person  or  thing,  as  act- 
ing or  existing  in  a  certain  state,  and  this  person  or  thing  is 
called  the  subject ;  as,  "  Frank  plays."     "  She  sleeps." 

EXERCISES. 

Point  oid  the  verbs  and  their  subjects  in  the  following  examples :  The 
clouds  vanish.  The  vapor  rises.  The  plant  lives.  Flowers  die.  Chil- 
dren sing.     They  stand.     Can  you  see  ?    Here  they  are  !    The  ice  melts 

Write  appropriate  verbs  for  the  folloxoing  nouns  as  subjects  :  — 
Samuel,  the  pen,  the  book,  flowers,  we,  oceans,  moon,  the  earth,  forests, 
the  king,  Victoria. 

Write  appropriate  noxins,  as  stibjectsfor  the  following  verbs :  — 
Rules,  is,  tliinks,  hopes,  learns,  shine,  grow,  dig,  revolve,  sits,  fears 
blossom,  arise,  sink. 

Alter  the  following  verbs  so  as  to  xorite  them  properly  with  their  sub- 
jects :  — 

Time  fly.  The  grass  grow.  The  rain  fall.  The  pupil  try.  The  officer 
defy.  The  teacher  say.  The  gas  burn.  The  boy  do.  The  peasant  woo. 
The  dove  coo.    The  tailor  cut.    The  dog  bite. 

Alter  the  folloxoing  nouns  and  pronouns  so  that  the  verbs  (as  given)  may 
unite  with  them: — 
The  merchants  says.     The  sailor  see.    They  thinks.     He  play.     Yo« 


P2  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

nopest.     Some  persons  believes.    The  honest  farmers  labors.    The  diligent 
pupil  learn.     The  old  soldiers  is  maintained.     The  pleasant  tasks  is  done. 

Correct  the  following  errors:  — 

Mans  destiny  cannot  be  fully  none,  lucy  has  rote  these  lines  of  po'try 
on  her  slate  i  should  be  bizzy  two  for  satan  finds  some  mischief  still  for 
idle  hands  to  do. 


CLASSES   OF  VERBS. 

Note.  —  Let  the  teacher  here  give  an  oral  exercise,  tbe  object  of  which 
*hall  be  to  exhibit  the  distinction  between  a  transitive  and  an  intransitive, 
a  regular  and  an  irregular  verb.  After  the  distinction  is  fully  made, 
'et  the  class  attempt  a  statement  of  it,  before  learning  the  following 
Aefinitions :  — 

Verbs  are  divided,  according  to  their  use,  into  transitive 
ind  intransitive. 

A  transitive  verb  requires  the  addition  of  an  object  to 
complete  its  meaning  ;  as,  "  The  servant  opened  the  door." 

An  intransitive  verb  does  not  require  the  addition  of  an 
object  to  complete  its  meaning  ;  as,  "  The  sun  rises."  "  The 
horse  runs." 

Rem.  1.  —  Verbs  may  be  divided  on  account  of  their  relation  to  the 
subject  into,  — 

(1.)  The  abstract  or  substantive  verb  Be,  which  represents  no  attribute  of 
the  subject  whatever,  but  serves  merely  as  a  copula,  or  li?ik,  to  bind  an  at- 
tribute to  the  subject. 

(2.)  Attributive  or  mixed  verbs,  in  which  an*"  attribute  denoting  an  action 
or  state  of  the  subject  is  blended  with  the  copula;  as,  runs  =  is  running; 
is  being  the  copula,  and  running  the  attribute. 

Rkm.  2.  —  Attributive  verbs,  including  also  the  copula  to  be,  have  been 
divided  into  those  which  represent  the  subject  in  an  active  state,  (active 
verbs ;)  those  which  represent  it  in  a  passive  state,  that  is,  in  such  a  state  as 
to  receive  or  suffer  an  action,  (passive  verbs  ;)  and  those  which  represent  the 
■subject  in  neither  of  these  states,  (neuter  verbs,)  that  is,  a  state  in  which 
it  neither  acts  nor  receives  the  effect  of  an  action.  But  this  distinction 
has  little  to  do  with  the  construction  of  language.  It  is  the  relation  of 
the  verb  to  a  succeeding  term  that  renders  a  classification  important ;  * 
and  hence,  — 

Rem.  3.  —  The  terms  transitive  and  intransitive  have  been  general- 
ly adopted  by  recent  grammarians,  as  best  suited  to  the  purposes  of 
construction.  Although  the  ides,  of  an  act  originating  in  an  agent,  and 
"passing  over"  to  an  object,  seems  inapplicable  to  such  verbs  as  have, 
possess,  receive,  acquire,  and  many  others,  still  the  terms,  as  defined  above, 
are  liable  to  little  or  no  objection. 


*  The  did  division  is  retained  in  the  dictionaries,  and  the  learner  Fhould  under- 
stand, in  consulting  a  dicti  mary,  that  v.  a.  after  a  verb  is  equivalent  to  transitive,  v.  n. 
fc  intransitive.  Thus,  run,  jly,  walk,  though  they  represent  tht  subjocv  ir  a  vary  a*. 
t>v»  state,  are  marked  r.  ?».  —  verb  ntuter. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS  —  EXERCISES.  &3 

Rem.  4.  —  The  object  or  complement  of  the  transitive  verb  stands  as  an 
answer  to  the  question  Wliat?  with  the  verb  ;  is,  "  The  ox  eats  (Whatf) 
hay,  grass,  oats,  corn,  &c.  To  determine  whether  a  verb  is  transitive  or 
intransitive,  we  have  only  to  use  this  test :  ask  with  it  the  question  What  t 
or  Whomt  and  if  the  sense  requires  that  a  noun  or  pronoun  meaning  a 
different  tiling  from  the  subject  should  be  added,  it  is  transitive  ;  other- 
wise it  is  intransitive. 

Rem.  5.  —  When  the  noun  or  pronoun  thus  added  means  the  same 
person  or  thing  as  the  subject,  it  is  not  the  object,  but  is  a  predicate-nomi 
native,  and  the  verb  is  either  intransitive,  or  transitive  in  the  passive  voice. 
All  such  verbs  perform  the  office  of  the  copula,  and  are,  hence,  called  cop- 
ulative verbs.  These  are  be,  (the  simple  copula-,)  become,  seem,  appear, 
stand,  walk,  and  other  verbs  of  position,  motion,  and  condition  ;  the  pas- 
sive verbs  is  called,  is  named,  is  styled,  is  appointed,  is  constituted,  is  elected 
is  chosen,  is  made,  is  esteemed,  is  reckoned,  and  others. 

Rem.  6.  —  A  transitive  verb  in  a  proposition  necessarily  implies  three 
terms  —  a  subject  or  agent,  a  predicate,  and  an  object.  When  the  verb  as- 
sumes the  passive  form,  the  foregoing  order  is  inverted,  and  we  have  an 
ibject,  a  predicate,  and  a  subject  or  agent ;  as,  "  The  locusts  (agent  =  sub.) 
devoured  (pred.)  the  grass,"  (obj.J  =  The  grass  (obj.  =  sub.)  was  devoured 
fpred.)  by  the  locusts,  (agent.)  An  intransitive  verb  requires  but  two 
terms,  a  subject  and  predicate,  and  as  it  cannot  assume  the  passive  form, 
(except  by  the  aid  of  a  preposition,)  the  terms  can  undergo  no  such 
change  as  above. 

Rem.  7  — Many  verbs  are  transitive  in  one  signification,  and  intransi- 
tive in  another.  When  the  object  is  not  necessarily  impliea,  '  is  better  to 
consider  such  verbs  intransitive,  and  not  transitive,  because  an  ubject  may 
be  supplied ;  as,  "  She  sings  beautifully,"  (intransitive  ;)  "  She  sings  so- 
prano," (transitive.) 

Rem.  8.  —  Some  verbs,  usually  intransitive,  become  transitive  when 
used  with  a  causative  signification ;  as,  "  The  train  usually  runs  at  the 
rate  of  twenty-five  miles  an  hour ;  but  they  ran  a  train  (caused  it  run) 
at  the  rate  of  forty."  Some  verbs  become  transitive  when  they  take  an 
object  after  them  of  a  kindred  signification  ;  as,  "  He  ran  a  race,  played 
z.game." 


EXERCISES, 

Tell  which  of  the  following  verbs  are  transitive,  which  intransitive  :  — 
Dora  loves  her  mother.     The  golden  gates  open.     The  moon  silvers  the 

distant  hills.     Lily  has  found  her  ring.     Eleanor  writes  poetry.    The  snow 

melts.     The  icy  fetters  break.     The  innocent  lamb  dies.     The  child  plays. 

You  found  the  pearl.     The  twilight  deepens.     Does  Cornelia  live  there  ? 

The  fragrant  flowers  bloom.     The  king  rules.     She  received  a  letter. 

Write  an  appropriate  subject  and  object  for  each  of  tM  following  verbs  ;  — 
Rings,  learn,  find,  hide,  fears,  remembers,  inflicts,  receives,  lift,  hears, 
renews,  reviews,  write. 

Model.    The  sexton  rings  the  bell. 

Write  an  appropunate  verb  for  each  of  the  following  subjects  and  ob 
jects  :  — 

The  scholar his  books.     The  sun the  snow.     I the 

merrv  sleigh  bells.    The  lady her  friends.    We a  reward.    The 

h0V_: his  sled.      They the  tables.      The  little  boy his 

rocking  horse.      The  slave  - the  diamond.     They charades-. 

5* 


&4  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

Rosy-fingered  Aurora the  gates  of  day.      Milton  -  i^iadls* 

>jOSt. 

Substitute  correct  and  more  elegant  expressions  for  the  following  in 
Italics :  — 

I  have  got  to  go.  Nob-'dy  told  me.  She  7iad  not  ought  to  tell.  Ain't  you 
afraid  ?  I  have  came  home.  1  done  my  work.  I  learnt  her  to  do  it.  I 
ain't  alone.  In  she  come.  He  knowed  his  lesson.  Is  not  this  grand 
Weather  ?     Thinks  says  I,  I  will  lo  it.     I  reckon  you  can.     It  rains  some 

shall  be  ten  gear  old  come  May.  Do  you  like  those  kind  of  things  1  Sh.6 
didn't  kn<w  nobody.  It  is  her.  Mary  and  me  are  to  home.  She  brought 
me  a  f/reat  big  apple.  She  fetched  me  a  book.  I  found  her  a-crgm'.  I 
am  glad  to  see  ye  ;  will  ye  se'  down  t 

Verbs  are  divided,  according  to  their  form,  into  regular  and 
irregular. 

A  regular  verb  is  one  which  forms  its  past  tense,  and 
oast  participle,  by  adding  ed  *  to  the  present  tense  ;  as,  love, 
loved,  loved  ;  gain,  gained,  gained. 

An  irregular  verb  is  one  which  does  not  form  its  past 
tense  and  past  participle  by  the  addition  of  ed  *  to  the  pres- 
ent tense  ;  as,  see,  saw,  seen  ;  write,  wrote,  written. 

A  defective  verb  is  one  in  which  some  of  the  parts  are 
wanting ;  as,  may,  might,  (participle  wanting.) 

An  auxiliary  verb  is  one  which  is  employed  in  the  con- 
jugation of  other  verbs  ;  as,  have,  in  have  loved. 

An  impersonal  verb  is  one  by  which  an  action  or  state  is 
asserted  independently  of  any  particular  subject ;  as,  u  It 
rains."     "  It  snows" 

To  verbs  belong  voice,  mode,  tense,  number,  and  person. 


VOICE. 

ORAL   EXERCISE. 

In  the  sentence,  "  The  bee  builds  a  cell,"  which  does  something,  the 
bee  or  the  cell  ?  Ans.  The  bee.  Which  is  acted  upon?  Ans.  The  cell, 
Now,  suppose  we  express  the  same  in  another  way,  and  say,  "  A  cell  is 
built  by  the  bee,"  what  changes  have  we  made  ?  Ans.  We  have  put 
cell  before  the  verb,  we  have  changed  builds  into  is  built,  we  have  inserted 
by,  and  we  have  placed  bee  last.  Which  noAV  acts,  the  bee  or  the  cell  f  A  its 
The  bee,  as  before.  Which  is  acted  upon  ?  Ans.  The  cell,  ns  before 
Which  is  the  subject  of  the  proposition  now  ?  Ans.  Cell.  Which  was 
the  subject  before  ?    Ans.  Bee.    Then,  when  bee  is  the  subject,  the  sub 

*  The  suffix  to  every  regular  veil  is  ed.  If  the  present  tens?  ends  in  e  muta,  Dial 
«tter  must  he  dropped  by  Rule  II. ,  page  15. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VOICE  —  EXERCISE.  55 

•ect  acts ;  but  when  cell  is  tlie  subject,  the  subject  is  acted  upon :  and  when 
the  subject  acts,  the  verb  is  builds ;  when  the  subject  is  acted  upon,  the 
verb  is,  is  built.  The  former  is  called  the  active  voice,  the  latter  the  pas- 
iive  voice. 

Voice  is  that  form  of  the  transitive  verb  which  shows 

whether  the  subject  acts  or  is  acted  upon. 

There  are  two  voices  —  the  active  and  the  passive* 
The  active  voice  represents  the  subject  as  acting;    as, 

"  John  struck  William." 

Here  John,  is  the  subject,  and  John  perfowns  the  act 

The  passive  voice  represents  the  subject  as  acted  upon , 
as,  "  William  was  struck  by  John." 

Here  William  is  the  subject,  but  he  does  not  act:  he  only  receives  the  act,  or  ia 
acted  upon. 

Hem.  1.  —  Any  sentence,  having  for  its  predicate  a  transitive  verb,  may 
be  changed  or  transformed  fay  changing  the  active  to  the  passive  voice,  or 
the  passive  to  the  active.  The  same  meaning,  or  nearly  the  same,  will  be 
expressed  in  either  case. 

Rem.  2.  — A  transitive  verb  necessarily  implies  the  presence  of  an  active 
and  a  passive  person  or  thing.  The  one  performs  the  act,  the  other  re- 
ceives or  suffers  it.  If  the  active  one  is  made*  the  subject  of  the  sentence, 
the  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  active  voice  ;  if  the  passive  one  is  made  the  sub- 
ject, the  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  passive  voice ;  as,  "  The  locusts  devoured 
(active)  the  grass."  "  The  grass  was  devoured  (passive)  by  the  locusta." 
Strictly  speaking,  the  ideas  of  active  and  passive,  though  manifesting  them- 
selves in  the  form  of  the  verb,  are  not  attributes  of  the  verb,  but  of  the  per- 
sons or  things  connected  with  it,  just  as  comparison,  though  exhibiting 
itself  in  the  forms  of  the  adjective,  is  really  the  bringing  together  of  two 
or  more  objects,  and  not  qualities. 

The  following  are  all  the  possible  cases  which  can  occur :  — 

I.  One  and  the  same  person  or  thing  may  represent  both  relations,  the 
active  and  the  passive;  as,  "He  struck  himself."  "  She  struck  herself." 
"  It  destroyed  itself."  "  You  struck  yourself ."  "  I  struck  myself "  (See 
Personal  Pronoun,  Rem.  3,  p.  35.) 

II.  Two  different  persons  or  things  may  be  employed  to  represent  these 
relations. 

(1.)  One  may  be  simply  active,  and  the  other  simply  passive;  as, 
"  George  struck  William  "  =  William  was  struck  by  George. 

(2.)  Exch  may  be,  at  the  same  time,  both  active  and  passive;  as,  "  They 
struck  each  other  "  =  They  struck,  each  [struck]  the  other.     (See  p.  3.5.)' 

III.  Three  different  persons  or  things  may  be  employed ;  one  act  re, 
and  the  other  passive. 

(1.)  One  may  act,  another  suffers  the  act,  while  the  third  stands  as  tr.\t 
to  which  the  act  is  tending;  as,  "He  (act)  gave  me  (tending  to)  a  book,'' 

*  Passive  means  sxiffering,  that  is,  suffering  or  receiving  an  act,  the  subjec'  or  i* 
eer."«r,  meanwhile,  being  in  an  inactive  state. 


»>b  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

fpaso  •    "He  tOi.d  me  ins  history  "  =  His  history  was  told  me  by  Am  2-  a 
was  U  Id  his  history  by  Aim. 

(2.)  One  acts,  another  is  acted  upon,  and  thereby  transformed  or  made 
into  the  third  ;  as,  "  They  made  him  an  officer  "  =  He  was  made  an  officer 
by  them  =  An  officer  was  made  of  him  by  them.  In  this  case  there  are 
but  two  different  persons  or  things.  The  second  and  third  denote  the 
same  individual. 

Hem.  3.  —  When  the  agent  is  unknown,  or  when  we  wish  to  conceal  it, 
by  drawing  attention  only  to  the  act  and  the  object  affected  by  it,  we  use 
the  passive  voice  ;  as,  "  Gold  is  found  (by  some  one  unknown,  or  known, 
but  not  mentioned)  in  California."  But  if  wc  wish  to  make  the  agent 
prominent,  we  use  the  active  voice ;  as,  "  Moses  conducted  the  Israelites 
out  of  Egypt." 

Rem.  4.  —  Some  intransitive  verbs,  when  accompanied  by  the  preposi- 
tion following,  admit  of  a  passive  form  ;  as,  "  They  laughed  at  him  "  =  He 
was  laughed  at.  So,  when  a  verb  takes  two  objects,  one  direct  and  the 
Dther  indirect,  the  latter  is  sometimes  made  the  subject  of  the  verb  in  the 
passive  voice  ;  as,  "  I  told  him  a  story  "  =  He  was  told  a  story. 

Rem.  5.  —  Certain  intransitive  verbs,  as  come,  arrive,  fall,  rise,  &c., 
admit  of  a  passive  form,  yet  with  an  instransitive  signification,  as  will  be 
Been. by  observing  that  the  agent  or  actor,  not  the  object,  is  the  subject  of 
the  sentence  in  either  form ;  as,  "Babylon  is  fallen"  (has  fallen.)  This 
idiom  is  less  common  now  than  formerly,  and  may  be  regarded  as  an  imi- 
tation of  the  French  or  German  forms  of  similar  verbs. 


EXERCISE. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  verbs  are  in  the  active  voice,  which  in  tht 
passive :  — 

The  moon  gives  a  pleasant  light.  The  book  was  written  by  my  father.  The 
song  of  the  bird  is  heard  in  the  grove.  Leverrier  discovered  a  new  planet. 
How  doth  the  little  busy  bee  improve  each  shining  hour.  Knowledge 
gives  power.  The  stars  were  hidden  by  the  dark  cloud.  The  ice  was 
melted  by  the  warm  rays  of  the  sun.  The  scholars  corrected  the  inelegant 
expressions  which  they  used.  The  heavens  declare  the  glofy  of  God. 
The  letter  was  written  by  the  lawyer.     He  found  the  money. 

Change  in  the  above  sentences,  the  verbs  in  the  active  voice  into  the  passive, 
und  the  verbs  in  the  passive  voice  into  the  active. 

Represent  each  of  the  folloioing  objects  as  acted  upon  by  some  other 
object :  — 

Pencils,  paper,  sound,  table,  looking  glass,  gas,  chair,  bell,  pens,  bookst 
gold,  silver,  air,  ceiling,  hat,  cane,  letters,  water,  ice,  snow. 

Model.    Pencils  are  broken,  &c. 

"Represent  the  folloxoing  objects  as  acting  upon  some  other  object :  — 

Bees,  children,  philanthropists,  the  canary  birds,  discipline,  unagir 

exercise,  the  boy,  the  glass,  pins,  shoes,  scholars,  men,  clouds,  the  wafch, 

ihe  cat,  father,  teachers,  ministers,  jewdlers. 

?»Iot)el.     Bees  gat-ier  honey,  &c. 


ETYMOLOGY MODE.  5*7 

MODE. 

ORAL   EXERCISE. 

1  sec  a  dove  upon  the  portico  ;  but  as  I  approach  him,  he  flies  away.  1 
now  say  to  you,  while  he  is  yet  on  the  wing,  "The  dme  is  flying  away." 
Who  of  you  would  think  of  looking  on  the  portico  for  the  dove  ?  Ana. 
No  one.  But  again,  I  see  the  dove  as  before,  and  I  say  to  you,  "  The 
dove  may  fly  away."  Where  would  you  now  look  for  the  dove?  A  us. 
On  the  portico.  But  have  I  not  spoken  of  his  flying  away  ?  Yes,  indeed, 
but  you  have  not  said  that  he  is  actually  flying  away.  Then,  to  say  some- 
thing about  flying  aicay,  does  not  always  mean  actually  flying  away.  1 
may  think  of  a  dove  flying ;  I  may  imagine  one  flying,  but  is  he  there- 
fore, flying  ?  Am.  He"  is  not.  So,  when  I  wish  to  show  what  actually 
takis  place,  I  have  one  mode  of  speaking,  and  when  1  wish  to  show  what 
Has  been  merely  thought  of,  or  imagined,  but  not  yet  realized,  or  actually 
done,  I  have  another  mode  of  speaking.  Thus,  when  I  say.  "  The  boy 
is  playing"  or  "  The  boy  may  play,  can  ]>lay,  or  must  play,"  which  expres- 
sion shows  you  that  he  actually  plays  ?  and  which  allows  you  to  suppose 
him  at  rest)  Again,  suppose' I  say,  "If  the  boy  play,"  does  he  play? 
A)ts.  He  does  not.  It  only  supposes  him  to  play.  If  now  the  boy  were 
unoccupied,  and  you  desired  him  to  play,  how  would  you  express  that  de- 
sire r  Ana.  By  saying,  "  Come,  boy,  play  with  us."  Thus  you  would  employ 
another  mode  of  speaking.  All  these  ways  of  speaking  are  called  modes. 
The  following  definitions  will  show  you  how  many,  and  wha+  the  modes 
are :  — 

Mode  is  the  manner  in  which  the  action,  being  or  state  is 
asserted. 

Rem.  1.  —  Mode  does  not  show  the  manner  of  the  action  or  state,  but  the 
manner  of  its  assertion.  It  may  be  asserted  as  a  reality,  or  as  something  im- 
ayiued, that  may,  can,  or  must  take  place,  or- as  something  imayiued  or  sup- 
posed,  which  is  placed  under  a  condition,  or  as  something  desired.  The 
manner  of  the  action  or  state  is  expressed  by  means  of  limiting  words  ; 
as,  "  The  soldier  fought  (a  reality)  bravely,''''  (manner  of  the  act ;)  "  The 
soldier  may  fight  (something  imagined)  bravely,"  (manner  of  the  supposed 
act.) 

Rem.  l. — The  infinitive  is  not  properly  a  mode  of  the  verb;  for,  since 
it  docs  not  assert  action  at  all,  it  cannot  be  said  to  have  any  manner  or 
mode  of  assertion.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  participles.  In  fact,  the 
infinitive  is  a  participle,  partaking  of  the  properties  of  the  noun  and  the 
verb,  as  the  (so  called)  participles  partake  of  the  properties  of  the  adjective 
and  the  verb. 

There  are  commonly  reckoned  five  modes  —  the  indica- 
tive, the  potential,  the  subjunctive,  the  imperative,  and  the 
infnitive. 

The  indicative  mode  asserts  a  thing  as  actually  existing  ; 
as,  u  James  loves."     "  William  was  struck." 

The  potential  mode  asserts  the  power,  liberty,  permission, 
necessity,  or  duty  of  acting,  or  being  in  a  certain  state  ;  as 
*  We  can  sing."     "  You  may  write."     "  He  must  read. 
"  They  -should  obey  the  law." 


68  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

The  subjunctive  mode  asserts  a  thing  as  conditional,  or 
doubtful;  as,  "  If  he  leave  me."     "Though  he  slay  me.' 

The  imperative  mode  asserts  a  command,  an  entreaty,  01 
a  permission ;  as,  "  Write."  "  Go  thou."  "  J3e  admon- 
ished." 

The  infinitive  mode  represents  the  action  or  state  as  an 
abstract  noun  ;  as,  "  To  write."     "  To  be  seen" 

Rem.  1.  —  The  indicative  mode  is  used  in  principal  propositions,  and  is 
employed  to  represent  what  is  actual,  real,  or  absolute.  It  may  be  used  in 
interrogative  or  exclamatory  sentences  ;  as,  "  Has  he  arrived  ?  "  "  The 
villain  has  fired  the  dwelling!  "  It  is  often  used  in  subordinate  proposi- 
tions, but  always  to  represent  what  is  actual ;  as,  *'  I  know  that  he  dis- 
covered (actually)  the  plot." 

Rem.  2.  —  The  potential  mode  is  also  used  in  principal  propositionst, 
not,  however,  to  represent  the  actual,  but  that  which,  at  the  time  of  speak- 
ing, exists,  or  is  supposed  to  exist,  only  in  idea  —  that  which  is  merely  im- 
agined or  thought  of.  The  ideal  act  or  state,  however,  is  supposed  to  have 
some  relation  to  reality.  It  can  become  a  reality  ;  that  is,  there  is  no  im 
possibility  in  the  way  of  its  realization ;  no  ability  is  wanting :  it  may 
become  a  r  ality,  that  is,  permission  is  granted,  or  in  the  final  result  per- 
haps it  will  >e  a  reality :  it  must  become  actual,  that  is,  a  necessity,  or  an 
obligation  e  ists.  This  mode  may  be  used  in  interrogative,  exclamatory, 
or  supplicate  y  sentences  ;  as,  "  Can  he  leave  the  city  in  safety  ?  "  "  lie 
may  be  assassinated  !  "  "  May  the  truth  be  victorious."  It  may  be  used 
in  subordinate  propositions,  but  always  to  represent  what  is  ideal  or  what 
has  not  been  realized;  as,  "He  says  that  I  may  (I  do  not  now)  attend 
school."  The  potential  may  be  known  by  the  auxiliaries,  may,  can,  must, 
might,  could,  would,  should. 

Rem.  3.  —  The  subjunctive  mode  is  used  exclusively  in  subordinate 
propositions,  and  hence  its  name,  (sub,  under,  and  jungo,  I  join.)  It  is 
joined  to  the  verb  of  the  principal  proposition  by  the  subordinate  conjunc- 
tions, if,  though,  although,  lest,  except,  that,  save  that,  unless,  provided 
that,  and  some  o  hers  ;  they  impart  the  idea  of  doubt,  contingency,  or 
conditionality.  Whatever  of  futurity  may  be  implied  in  the  subjunctive,  is 
to  be  accounted  for  either  from  the  fact  that  any  thing  that  is  conditional 
or  contingent  is  yet  to  be  realized,  (if  ever,)  or  from  the  influence  of  a  sup- 
pressed auxiliary,  such  as  shall  or  should,  which  imparts  (though  under- 
stood) the  idea  of  futurity  ;  as,  "  Though  he  (should)  slay  me,  yet  will  I 
trust  in  him." 

The  subjunctive  represents  an  ideal  act,  or  a  real  act,  conceived  only  as  an 
idea,  and  places  it  under  a  condition  accompanied  with  more  or  less  doubt. 
As  to  a  distinctive  form  of  the  subjunctive,  it  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have 
any,  unless  it  be  found  in  the  present  tense,  or  present  and  past  of  to  be  ; 
and  in  all  such  cases,  (with  the  single  exception  of  were,  in  examples  like  "  If 
it  tvere,"  "  If  I  were.")  by  supplying  an  ellipsis,  they  may  be  referred  to  the 
forms  of  the  indicative  future  or  the  past  potential ;  as,  "  If  it  rain,  we  shall 
not  leave  "  —  If  it  should  rain,  &c.  "  Till  one  greater  man  restore  (shall 
restore)  us,  and  regain  (shall  regain)  the  blissful  seat,  sing,  heavenly  muse." 
The  majority  of  writers,  at  the  present  time,  employ  the  forms  of  the  indic- 
ative present ;  as,  "  If  it  rains  ;  "  "  If  he  leaves."  Hence  the  subjunctive 
may  be  regarded  as  borrowing  its  forms  from  the  indicative  and  potential 
modes. 

»Rem.  4.  —  The  imperative  mode  is  used  in  principal  propositions.  It  \a 
.he  mode  wh  Sh  expresses  will,  or  desire.    It  may  usually  be  known  by 


ETYMOLOGY  —  PARTICI.' LES.  59 

the  omissior.  of  the  subject;  as,  "  Read,  (thou,)  xcrite."  The  force  of  this 
mode,  under  the  same  form,  depends  upon  the  relation  of  the  parties.  If 
a  superior  speaks  imperatively  to  an  inferior,  it  is  a  command;  if  an 
equal  to  an  equal,  it  is  an  exhortation  or  an  entreaty  ;  if  an  inferior  to  a  su- 
perior, it  is  a  prayer  or  supplication.  The  imperative  is  made  subordinate 
only  in  a  direct  quotation ;  as,  "  God  said,  Let  there  be  light."  It  is  often 
elegantly  p;it  for  a  conditional  clause  ;  as,  "  Let  but  the  commons  hear 
this  testament,  and  they  would  go  and  kiss  dead  Caesar's  wounds  "  = 
Could  the  commons,  &c,  or,  If  the  commons  could  but  hear,  &c. 

Rem.  5.  — The  infinitive  is  used  in  abridged  propositions,  and  hence  is 
wholly  dependent,  being  incorporated  as  an  element  of  another  proposi- 
tion. It  does  not  assert  any  thing ;  it  is  not  limited  by  the  number  and 
person  of  a  subject,  and  hence  its  name,  infinitive  =  unlimited,  in  distinc- 
tion horn  finite,  which  is  applied  to  all  verbs  used  in  construction  with  theft 
subjects,  and  thereby  limited  by  the  number  and  person  of  the  latter. 

The  infinitive  is  an  abstract  noun,  and,  as  such,  may  become,  (1.)  the  sub- 
test of  a  proposition ;  as,  "  To  err  is  human  "  =  It  is  human  to  err.  (2.) 
With  the  copula  it  may  become  the  predicate;  as,  "To  obey  is  to  enjoy.'" 
(3.)  It  may  be  in  apposition;  as,  Delightful  task  to  rear  the  tender  thought 
(4.)  It  may  be  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb ;  as,  "  She  loves  to  sin;/.'" 
(5  )  It  may  be  the  object  of  a  preposition  ;  as,  "  He  is  about  to  go"  But 
while  it  has  the  construction  of  a  noun,  it  is  modified  like  a  verb.  It  may 
be  in  the  active  or  passive  voice;  as,  to  love,  to  be  loved ;  it  may  be  in  the 
present  or  perfect  tense  ;  as,  to  love,  to  have  loved;  it  may  govern  an  ob- 
ject, or  be  limited  by  an  adverb,  like  any  verb,  but  is  never  qualified  by  an 
adjective,  although  it  may  have  an  adjective  in  the  predicate  belonging  to 
it ;  as,  "  To  steal  is  base." 

Although  the  infinitive  is  an  abstract  noun,  it  may,  nevertheless,  be  as- 
sociated with  the  object  from  which  it  has  been  abstracted  ;  as,  "  The  sol- 
dier faints,"  (finite,)  "for  the  soldier  to  faint"  (infin. ;)  "He  goes," 
(finite,)  '■'■for  him  to  go,"  (infin. ;)  "  we  told,  him  to  go"  (infin.) 

EXERCISES. 

Tell  the  mode  of  each  of  the  following  verbs  :  — 

The  walk  is  pleasant.  If  it  rains,  I  shall  not  go  to  Boston.  The  chil- 
dren went  into  the  garden.  What  is  a  thought-flower  ?  May  I  go  to 
the  concert  ?  Hear  the  rain  pattering  upon  the  roof.  I  will  stay  at  home. 
Be  entreated  by  me.  I  love  to  hear  music.  If  I  send  her  home,  she  will 
be  unhappy.  Do  let  me  help  you !  The  lamb  is  the  emblem  of  innocence. 
I  must  not  stay.  Do  you  see  the  snow  flakes  ?  How  pure  and  white  they 
are  !  He  maketh  me  to  lie  down  in  green  pastures.  Hope  thou  in  God. 
Whom  shall  I  fear  ? 

Write  a  subject  to  each  of  the  follotoing  verbs,  putting  them  first  in  thi 
indicative,  and  then  in  the  potential  modes  :  — 

Change,  exalt,  console,  go,  vary,  turn,  weep,  mourn,  lament,  fear,  ride, 
travel,  exhaust,  walk,  hope,  reconcile,  grow,  know  pity,  do,  sleep. 

Select  from  your  reading  lessons  examples  of  each  of  the  modes. 

Correct  the  faxdty  expressions  which  you  have  collected. 


PARTICIPLES. 

A  participle  is  a  word  having  the  signification  of  a  verK 
but  the  construction  of  an  adjective  ;   ns,  "  We  found  him 


GO  ENGLISH     iRAMMAR. 

lying  on  the  ground."     "  Having  written   his   letter,  he  sent 
t  to  his  friend." 

Rem.  1. — The  participle  is  sc  called  from  its  participating  the  prop- 
erties of  the  verb  and  adjective.  It  is  the  attributive  part  of  tbe  verb 
alone  ;  it  is  the  being,  action,  or  state  deprived  of  the  power  of  assertion  ; 
and  therefore,  when  joined  without  the  copula  to  the  noun  whose  attribute 
it  expresses,  it  must  be  assumed,  (not  predicated,)  just  as  an  adjective  is 
assumed  under  similar  circumstances.  It  has  the  meaning  of  the  verb,  is 
modified  like  the  verb,  but  is  used  like  the  adjective. 

Rem.  2.  —  It  is  not  a  distinct  part  of  speech,  but  is  derived  directly  from 
the  verb,  the  present  by  adding  in//,  the  past  by  adding  ed,  to  all  regu- 
lar verbs,  and  the  perfect  by  prefixing  to  the  past  the  auxiliary  having. 

There  are,  properly,  two  participles  —  the  present  and  the 
perfect ;  as,  reading,  having  read ;  (being)  loved,  having 
been  loved. 

Rem.  1.  —  These  two  participles  correspond  to  the  present  and  perfect 
tenses  of  the  verb.  They  are  used  in  abridged  propositions  ;  the  former 
when  the  proposition  before  its  abridgment  was  in  the  present,  past,  or 
future  tense  ;  the  latter  when  it  was  in  either  of  the  perfect  tenses. 

There  are,  however,  three  forms,  commonly  called  parti- 
ciples—  the  present,  the  past,  and  the  perfect. 


EXAMPLES. 


Perf. 


Active  Voice  .    loving,  loved,        having  loved. 

Passive  Voice  .  (being)  loved,    loved,*      having  be 

Rem.  1.  —  The  form  called  the  past  participle  may  have  been  once  the 
passive  participle,  having  the  same  form.  (See  Rem.  on  the  auxiliary 
Have,  p.  74.)  If  so,  it  has  now  wholly  lost  its  original  signification 
and,  strictly  speaking,  has  lost  its  character  as  a  participle.  It  never 
partakes  of  the  x>roperties  of  the  adjective;  it  never  is  used  to  limif 
a  noun  like  that  part  of  speech  ;  it  is  never  used  alone  in  participial  con 
structions,  that  is,  whore  the  participle,  with  the  words  depending  upon  it 
takes  the  place  of  a  subordinate  proposition  ;  it  is  always  found  in  *h( 
predicate,  either  of  complete  or  abridged  propositions,  and  is  connected 
with  some  form  of  have,  as,  have  lured,  had  loved;  having  loved ;  it  has  an 
active  signification,  and  always  denotes  a  past,  completed  act,  and  belongs 
as  well  to  intransitive  as  to  transitive  verbs. 

Rem.  2.  — The  passive  participle  of  the  same  form,  on  the  contrary,  )!■ 
limited  to  transitive  verbs,  has  always  a  passive  signification,  may  denote 
as  well  present  as  past  time ;  it  may  have  the  participial  construction,  or, 
with  the  copula,  may  form  the  passive  verb  in  all  the  modes  and  tenses. 


*  The  passive  participle  does  not  necessarily  denote  past  time.  Of  itself,  it  alttt 
ply  denotes  the  reception  of  an  act,  complete  or  incomplete.  The  time  depend.-)  upo* 
thai  of  the  verb  with  which  it  id  associated. 


ETYMOLOGY PARTICIPLES.  61 

Rem.  3.  —  Participles,  in  their  appropriate  use,  take  the  place  of  depend- 
ent propositions,  and  consequently  represent  time  in  the  tame  manner  as 
the  propositions  from  -which  they  are  derived. 

As  the  verb  of  the  dependent  clause  dates  from  the  time  expressed  hy 
the  principal  verb,  and  not  from  that  of  the  speaker,  the  parti  -iple  may  be 
present  with  a  past,  present,  or  future  act ;  as,  "  1  saw  a  man  walking  ;  " 
*'I  see  a  man  walking ;  "  "  I  shall  see  a  man  walking."  So,  again,  the 
participle  may  denote  a  past  act,  completed  at  the  time  of  a  past,  present, 
or  future  act ;  as,  "  Having  ploughed  his  field,  the  fanner  sowed,  s  ->ws,  tcill 
sow  the  seed." 

The  present  active  participle  denotes  an  action  or  state 
present,  and  in  progress  at  the  time  represented  by  the  prin- 
cipal verb  ;  as,  "  We  find,  found,  or  shall  find  him  sitting 
in  a  chair." 

Rem.  1.  —  This  participle  always  ends  in  ing ;  it  has  an  active  significa- 
tion, and  may  be  used  in  abridging  propositions ;  as,  "  I  saw  a  man  uxuk- 
ing  in  the  meadow."  It  may  be  used  wholly  as  an  adjective ;  it  is  then 
placed  before  the  noun  ;  as,  "  The  roaring  billows."  When  thus  used,  it 
1j  called  a  participial  adjective.  It  may  be  useti  with  the  copula  in  the 
progressive  form  of  the  predicate  ;  as,  "  I  am  reading."  It  may  be  used 
(1.)  wholly  as  a  noun,  with  the  preceding,  and  of  following ;  as,  "  The  -ead- 
ing  of  the  law  ;  "  or  (2.)  in  the  construction  of' the  noun  with  the  mod  fica- 
tions  of  the  verb  ;  as,  "  The  eye  is  never  satisfied  with  beholding  the  stu- 
pendous works  of  the  Creator." 

Rem.  2.  —  Though  this  participle  is  usually  active,  it  sometimes  has  a 
passive  signification,  especially  when  an  object  is  undergoing  a  progressive 
change  ;  as,  "  The  house  is  building."  "  New  efforts  are  making  for  the  ex- 
tension of  this  trade." — Webster.  "This  new  tragedy  was  acting."  — 
Everett.  Recent  writers  of  some  distinction  have  adopted  the  forms,  "  The 
house  is  being  built."  "  Preparations  are  being  made."  It  is  not  the  prov- 
ince of  the  grammarian  to  dictate  as  to  questions  of  usage,  but  to  admit 
and  explain  whatever  good,  national,  and  reputable  usage  sanctions. 
When  subjected  to  these  tests,  it  must  be  said  of  such  forms,  that  they 
are  by  no  means  adopted  by  the  best  writers  as  good  English,  and  they 
are  of  too  recent  origin  to  be  regarded  as  idioms  of  the  language. 

The  present  passive  participle  denotes  the  reception  of  an 
act,  at  the  time  represented  by  the  principal  verb  ;  a*i,  "  He 
lives,  lived,  will  live,  loved  by  all." 

Rem.  1.  —  This  participle  may  be  used  as  an  adjective,  or  with  the  cop- 
ula, to  form  the  passive  verb  ;  as,  "  A  refined  taste  is  jwssessed  only  by  th« 
cultivated."  When  preceded  by  being,  it  may  be  used  as  a  noun ;  as,  "  Bj 
being  involved  in  one  wrong  act,  he  was  soon  lost  to  all  the  appeals  of  his 
friends." 

The  perfect  active  participle  denotes  an  action  or  state 
completed  at  the  time  represented  by  the  principal  verb  ;  as, 
"  Having  finished  his  speech,  he  sat  down." 

The  perfect  passive  participle  denotes  the  reception  of  an 
act,  past  and  completed,  at  the  time  represented  by  the  pnn 
6 


62  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

cipal  verb  ;  as,  "  Having  been  driven  from  home,  he  enlisted 
in  the  army." 

Rem.  —  The  perfect  participles  are  never  used  like  the  piesent,  with 
the  copula,  to  form  the  predicate  They  may  lie  used  as  verbal  nouns  ;  a? 
"  He  was  accused  of  having  obtained  goods  on  false  pretences." 

The  action  or  state  expressed  by  the  participle  mr  y  bo 
either  predicated  or  assumed  ;  as,  u  The  horse  is  running 
through  the  street ; "  "  The  horse  running  through  tne 
street." 

Rem.  1.  —  The  participle,  when  predicated,  constitutes,  with  the  copula, 
or  auxiliary  have,  a  form  of  the  verb.  The  present  participle  is  used  in  the 
progressive  form  or  imperfect  tenses  ;  the  past  in  the  complete  form,  or 
perfect;  the  passive,  in  the  passive  form ;  as,  "The  farmer  was  plough- 
inq  his  field.  "The  farmer  had  ploughed  his  field."  "The  field  was 
ploughed  by  the  farmer." 

Rem.  2. —  The  participle,  when  assumed,  is  equivalent  to  a  subordinate 
clause  ;  as,  "  The  boat  which  sails  on  yonder  lake  is  propelled  by  steam  " 
=  The  boat  sailing  on  yonder  lake  is  propelled  by  steam. 


EXERCISES. 

Give  the  present  participle  of  the  folloicing  verbs  :  — 

Find,  rely,  honor,  obey,  refuse,  visit,  paper,  paint,  exercise,  study,  parse, 
construe,  join,  mature,  plan,  inquire,  cultivate.  The  past  participle  of 
the  following  verbs  :  Plant,  ride,  paint,  suffer,  hope,  retreat,  prow,  mind,  en- 
dow, resemble,  suppose.  The  perfect  participle  of  the  following :  Bind, 
loose,  hang,  perfume,  make,  gain,'  lay,  come,  sit, 'dream,  wind,  imagine, 
hinder,  assist,  arrive,  release,  take,  place,  sing. 

Give  the  present,  past,  and  perfect  jjarticijyles  of  the  following  transitive 
verbs  :  — 

Trill,  fill,  heat,  cool,  weary,  excite,  exhaust,  enchant,  enjoy,  dissipate 
remember,  write,  learn,  ventilate. 

Change  the  participles  in  the  last  examples  to  the  cotresponding  jiassive 
participles. 

Mention  any  action  of  'the  following  objects  ;  first  predicate  the  act,  then 
assume  it :  — 

Goldfish,  carrier  dove,  chicken,  peacock,  horse,  lamb,  rabbit,  squirrel, 

Cartridge,  hen,  camel,  man,  woodcock,  mirrors,   chairs,  swallow,  scholars, 
opes,  (beams. 

Use  any  of  the  above  participles  with  is,  and  write  an  appropriate  sub- 
ject, thus  :  The  singer  is  trilling  his  note. 

Correct  the  following  examples  in  all  respects,  not  forgetting  any  vrror 
expressed  or  implied  in  the  thought :  — 

Ella  went  to  my  house  yesterday  and  i  and  her  sit  by  the  window  and 
Bee  how  the  sun  drawed  water  from'  my  father's  mill-pond, 
abel  said  how  last  evenm  he  see  a  star  fall  jest  over  his  uncle  Calebs  barn. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  TENSE.  C>3 

peter  says  how  his  father  thinks  the  gography  hadn't  ought  to  say  that  fhe 
Birth  turns  over  on  its  exle  coz  we  should  all  fall  of  when  we  get  on  'tot'aer 
side. 

Hoto  many  errors  have  you  heard  in  the  school  room  to-day  ?  How  many 
have  you  corrected  ?  How  many  of  them  are  you  sure  you  shall  hereafter 
avoul  t 

TENSE. 

OllAL   EXERCISE. 

As  I  look  out  of  the  window,  I  see  the  rain  falling :  how  can  I  so  speak 
as  to  show  that  it  falls  now  ?  Ans.  By  saying,  "  It  rains."  But  suppose 
I  should  wait  till  the  next  day,  and  then  speak  of  the  same  thing  as  having 
happened  the  day  before, what  should  I  say?  Ans.  "It  rained.''  What 
word  has  been  changed  ?  Why  was  it  altered  ?  If  I  felt  assured  that  rain 
would  fall  to-morrow,  what  should  I  say  in  speaking  of  it  before  it  hap- 
pened ?  Ans.  "  It  will  ram."  What  word  has  been  added  to  the  word 
rain  t  Why  was  it  added  ?  Then  we  can  speak  of  a  thing  token,  it  hap- 
pens, after  it  happens,  or  before  it  happens.  How  many  different  times 
are  shown  by  the  words  rains,  rained,  and  will  rain  t  Ans.  Three.  Which 
one  shows  that  the  raining  and  speaking  both  happened  together  ?  Which 
thows  that  the  raining  happened  before  the  speaking  ?  Which  shows  that 
the  raining  was  to  happen  after  the  speaking  ?  If  any  thing  happens  be- 
fore we  speak  of  it,  we  say  it  is  past,  or  it  happened  in  past  time.  Wnen 
any  thing  is  to  happen  after  we  speak  of  it,  we  say,  it  is  future,  or 
it  will  take  place  in  future  time.  Then  we  can  speak  of  a  thing  as  taking 
place  in  present  time,  past  time,  or  future  time. 

Tell  the  time  represented  in  the  following  examples  :  — 
We  sing.     They  run.     He  will  ride.     I   act.     John  came.    You  will 
study.     David  was  injured.     He  will  walk. 

A  farmer  commences  ploughing  his  field  at  six  o'clock  in  the  morning, 
and  continues  till  six  in  the  afternoon,  when  he  finishes  his  work.  How 
long  is  the  act  in  progress  ?  Ans.  Twelve  hours.  When  did  it  begin  ? 
When  end  ?  Mention  any  hour  when  it  was  in  progress.  Mention  any  hour 
before  or  after  it  was  in  progress.  Then  the  act  of  ploughing  had  a  beginning, 
9.  progress,  and  an  end.  Now,  suppose  I  wish  to  speak  of  the  ploughing 
indefinitely,  as  we  did  of  the  rain,  without  reference  to  the  beginning,  prog- 
ress, or  end  ;  how  should  I  put  it  in  present,  past,  or  future  time  ?  Ans. 
By  saying,  The  farmer  ploughs,  ploughed,  or  will  plough.  But  suppose  I 
see  the  act  in  progress,  and  I  wish  to  speak  of  it  as  actually  now  taking 
place,  without  reference  to  its  beginning  or  end ;  how  shall  I  speak  ?  Ans. 
By  saying,  He  is  ploughing.  How  can  I  show  the  same  thing  in  past  or 
future  time  ?  Ans.  lW  saying,  He  teas  ploughing,  he  will  be  ploughing. 
Suppose,  now,  I  shoild  see  him  at  six  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  just 
as  he  h  id  finished  his  work,  and  I  wish  to  speak,  not  of  the  beginning  or 
progreSS  of  the  work,  but  of  the  end  or  completion  of  it ;  how  can  I  rep- 
resent this  completion  in  present  time  ?  Ans.  By  saying,  The  farmer  has 
ploughed  his  field.  Will  you  put  it  in  past  time  ?  in  future  time  ?  Ans 
lie  had  ploughed,  he  urill  hare  ploughed  his  field.  Then,  if  we  speak  of 
an  act  without  reference  to  its  progress  or  end,  we  have  one  form  of  th* 
verb .     What  is  the  past,  present,  and  future  of  it  ?     Ans. 

Present.  .  The  farmer  ploughs 

Past.    .    .  The  farmer  ploughed. 

Future.    .  The  farmer  will  plough. 
How  can  I  so  speak  as  to  put  the  unfinished  or  progressing  act  in  th» 
present  ?  the  past  ?  the  future  .' 


64  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR 

By  saying,  — 

Present.  .  The  farmer  is  ploughing. 

Past.    .    .  The  farmer  was  ploughing. 

Future.    .  The  farmer  will  b"  ploughing. 
How  can  I  so  speak  as  to  put  the  end  or  completion  of  the  act  in  th» 
present  ?  the  past  ?  the  future  ? 
By  saying,  — 

Present.  .  The  farmer  has  ploughed. 

Past.    .    .  The  farmer  had  ploughed. 

Future.  .  The  farmer  will  have  ploughed, 
How  many  different  times  do  we  refer  all  actions  to  ?  Ans.  Three 
The  present,  the  past,  the  future.  How  many  different  states  of  the  act  can 
we  show  ?  Ans.  Three.  The  act  in  progress,  without  reference  to  th< 
end  of  it ;  the  end,  without  reference  to  beginning  or  progress  of  it ;  and  the 
simple  act,  without  reference  to  either.  What  is  the  time  of  the  following 
acts  ?  The  wind  blows.  The  dog  barked.  The  trees  have  bent.  The  grass 
will  grow.  The  fire  will  have  burned.  The  lesson  ends.  —  The  state  of 
the  following  ?  The  bell  is  ringing.  The  mail  has  arrived.  The  birds  had 
sung.  The  leaves  fall.  The  fishes  will  be  swimming.  — Now  give  the  time 
and  state  of  each. 

Tense  denotes  the  time  of  an  action  or  event. 

Rem.  1.  —  Although  tense  properly  denotes  the  time  of  an  action  or 
event,  the  tense  form  of  the  verb  is  made  also  to  denote  the  state  of  an 
act.  If  an  act  is  spoken  of  without  reference  to  its  progress  or  completion, 
we  have  the  simple  or  indefinite  present,  past,  or  future  :  as,  I  love,  I  loved,  I 
shall  love.  But  if  a.  progressive  and  unfinished  state  of  the  act  is  to  be  repre- 
sented, we  have  another  form  for  the  present,  past,  and  future ;  as,  I  am 
writing,  I  teas  writing,  I  shall  be  writing.  If,  again,  we  wish  to  represent 
the  finished  or  completed  state  of  an  indefinite  act,  we  have  still  another 
form  for  the  present,  past,  and  future ;  as,  I  have  loved,  I  had  loved,  I  shall 
have  loved.  If  we  wish  to  represent  the  finished  or  completed  state  of  a 
progressive  act,  we  have  yet  another  form  ;  as,  I  have  been  writing,  I  had 
been  writing,  I  shall  have  been  writing.  If  we  wish  to  make  the  simple 
form  emphatic,  we  have  still  another  ;  as,  I  do  love,  I  did  love,  for  the  pres- 
ent and  past.  If  we  wish  to  show  that  the  subject  is  receiving  or  suffering 
an  act  in  present,  past,  or  future  time,  we  have  still  another  form  ;  as,  I 
am  loved,  I  toas  loved,  I  shall  be  loved. 

Rem.  2.  —  Tense  does  not  mean  the  time  which  elapses  from  the  begin- 
ning to  the  end  of  an  act,  that  is,  the  duration  of  an  act.  But  it  refers 
either  to  the  present,  to  an  indefinite  period  antecedent  to  the  present,  or 
to  an  indefinite  period  subsequent  to  the  present.  The  present,  strictly 
speaking,  has  no  length  ;  it  is  the  point  where  the  past  and  future  meet. 
But  for  the  purposes  of  language,  any  portion,  as  a  day,  a  month,  a  year; 
a  century,  may  be  taken  as  the  present,  and  all  other  time  as  past  or 
future.  The  present  progressive  form  is,  however,  always  the  moment  of 
speaking. 

The  present  is  the  point  or  period  of  time  assumed  by  the  speaker  or  wri- 
ter, and  is  the  epoch  to  which  all  events  are  referred.  Whatever  occurs 
in  it,  whether  before  or  after  the  precise  moment  of  speaking,  is  present ; 
whatever  occurs  out  of  it  is  either  past  or  future. 

There  are  three  divisions  of  time  —  the. past,  the  presen 
and  the  future. 

Rem  ,  —  Were  it  not  necessary  to  make  other  distinctions  in  time  based  on 
subdivisions  of  these  three,  thqre  would  be  but  three  tense  forms,  the  pros- 


ETYMOLOGY  —  TENSE.  65 

ent,  the  past,  and  the  future.  But  it  is  often  required  tn  give  to  an  event 
a  double  refereiue  :  (1.)  to  the  time  of  speaking,  and  (2. J  to  a  given  point 
or  portion  of  the  present,  past,  or  future. 

leases  which require  this  second  point  of  reference  are  called  relative 
tenses ;  while  those  which  have  onlf  a  single  reference  to  the  speaker 
are  called  absolute  tenses. 

Each  division  has  two  tenses  —  an  absolute  and  a  relative. 
There  are,  therefore,  six  tenses — three  absolute  and  three 
relative  ;  as,  (absolute,)  "  I  write"  "  I  wrote"  "  I  shall 
write;"  (relative,)  "  I  have  written"  (some  time  to-day  or 
this  year,)  "  I  had  written"  (before  the  boat  sailed,)  "  T 
shall  have  written"  (at  noon.) 

Rem.  1.  —  The  absolute  tenses  take  their  name  from  the  division  of  time 
to  which  they  belong.  Thus  we  have  the  present  tense,  the  past  tense, 
the. future  tense.  The  relative  tenses  affix  to  the  name  of  the  tense  the 
word  perfect.  Thus  we  have  the  present  perfect,  the  past  perfect,  and  the 
future  perfect. 

Rem.  2.  —  To  these  six  tenses  may  be  added,  with  propriety,  three 
others,  called  the  present  imperfect,  past  imperfect,  and  ftture  imper- 
fect ;  as,  "  I  am  vynting  ;  **  H I was  writing  ;"  ut shall  be  writing."  These 
forms  are  usually  relative;  tenses  ;  as,  "  I  atn  writing  while  you  are  read- 
ing ;  "  "I  was  writing  when  the  coach  arrived ;  "  "I  shall  be  writing  when 
you  return."  These  are,  however,  called  the  progressive  form  of  the  verb, 
and  may  be  used  even  in  the  perfect  tenses,  to  show  that  a  progressive  act 
is  completed ;  as,  "  1  have  been  writing,"  (but  I  am  not  now ;)  "  I  had  been 
writing"  (but  I  was  not  at  the  past  time  referred  to;)  "I  shall  have  been 
writing^'  (but  not  at? the  future  time  referred  to.) 

The  tenses  are  —  the  present,  the  present  perfect ;  the 
the  past,  the  past,  perfect  ;  the  future,  the  future  perfect. 

The  present  tense  represents  what  takes  place  in  present 
time  ;  as,  "  I  see  ; "  "  I  am  seeing ; "  "  I  do  see  ; "  "  I  am  seen" 

Rem.  1.  —  By  present  time  is  meant  the  present  of  the  speaker  or  writer, 
She  present  of  the  hearer  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  speaker;  but  that  of 
he  reader  is  not  the  same  as  that  of  the  writer. 

Rem.  2.  —  This  tense,  in  the  common  form,  is  used  to  denote  a  general 
•  tith,  or  what  is  customary;  as,  "  The  boy  attends  school;  :;  "Vice  pro- 
duces misery;"  "Truth  is  powerful."  In  the  progressive  form,  it  ex- 
p  osscs  wnat  is  now  actually  taking  place ;  as,  "  lie  is  writing  "  Mark  the 
difference  between  "  He  sings,"  that  is,  "  He  is  a  singer,"  ^but  is  not  sing- 
ing now,)  and  "  He  is  singing." 

Rem.  3. — The  present  is  often  used  for  other  tenses.  (1.)  It  is  used 
f  )i  he  past  in  animated  narratives,  where  the  writer  or  speaker  seems 
transported  to  the  scene  which  he  describes  ;  as,  "  He  seizes  his  musket 
ippn  xches  the  monster,  and  lays  him  upon  the  ground."  (2.)  It.  is  used 
for  tl  s  present  perfect  in  speaking  of  authors  long  since  dead,  when  their 
writin  v,s  are  referred  to  ;  as,  "  Matthew  traces  the  descent  of  Joseph  ;  Luke 
traces  'hat  of  Mary."  (3.)  It  is  used  for  the  future  after  relative  //ro- 
uouns.  and  the  subo.  dinate  connectives,  till,  until,  as  soon  «j,  when,  before, 

6* 


$6  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

if ,  as,  "  We  wiU  pa>  him  when  he  comes."     "  He  will  devour  every  insect 

which  amies  in  his  way." 

The  present  perfect  tense  represents  a  past  event  com- 
pleted in  present  time  ;  as,  "  I  have  seen  ; "  "  I  have  been 
seeing  ; "  "  I  have  been  seen." 

Rem.  1.  —  Whenever  the  attention  is  drawn  to  the  completion  of  an  act. 
the  question  of  time  refers  not  to  the  entire  act,  but  to  the  end  of  it.  If 
the  completion  takes  place  in  a  portion  of  time  which  the  speaker  as- 
sumes as  present,  however  long  that  portion  may  be,  or  however  remote 
the  time  of  the  completion  may  be  from  the  moment  of  speaking,  the 
tense  is  the  present  perfect ;  as,  "  I  have  written  a  letter  this  year.  '  The 
letter  might  have  "been  finished  on  the  first  of  January,  but  the  mention  of 
it  mijht  have  been  made  on  the  last  of  the  following  December.  But 
should  one  moment  intervene  between  the  portion  assumed  as  present  fond 
year  in  the  above  example)  and  the  portion  in  which  the  act  took  place, 
the  past  must  be  used  if  we  simply  refer  to  the  act,  or  the  past  perfect  if 
we  refer  to  the  completion  of  the  act. 

Rem.  2. — This  tense,  like  the  present,  is  used  for  other  tenses;  as, 
"  Shakspeare  has  excelled  all  other  dramatists."  "  When  I  have  finished 
my  task,  I  shall  return." 

The  past  tense  represents  what  took  place  in  time  wholly 
past ;  as,  "  I  saw."     "  I  ivas  seeing."     "  I  was  seen." 

Rem.  1.  —  The  past  and  the  present  perfect  may  both  refer  to  one  and 
the  same  act.  If  the  speaker  refers  to  an  act  indefinitely,  that  is,  without 
regard  to  its  progress  or  completion,  and  places  it  in  the  past,  beyond  any 
portion  of  what  he  assumes  as  present,  he  must  use  the  past  tense ;  as, 
"  I  wrote  this  forenoon ;  "  the  afternoon  being  assumed  as  present.  "  I 
have  written  (the  same  act)  to-day ;  "  the  whole  day  being  assumed  as 
present,  and  the  completion  (how  it  may  have  boen  with  the  beginning  is 
not  material)  has  taken  place  in  that  present. 

Real  2.  —  The  past  tense,  common  form,  is  to  past  time  what  the 

? resent,  common  form,  is  to  present  time.  It  refers  to  an  act  indefinitely. 
t  denotes,  like  the  present,  what  is  customary ;  as,  "  He  attended  school 
constantly."  But  in  the  progressive  form  it  denotes  a  definite  act  in 
past  time,  but  not  completed  ;  as,  "  He  teas  writing  when  I  came." 

The  past  perfect  represents  a  past  event  completed  in  time 

wholly  past ;  as,  "  I  had  seen."     "  I  had  been  seeing."     "  I 

had  been  seen." 

Rem.  —  The  present  perfect,  the  past,  and  the  past  perfect  may  each  re- 
fer to  the  same  act.  Suppose  a  person  to  write  a  letter  on  Monday  ;  he 
speaks  of  it  on  Wednesday,  assuming  Wednesday  alone  as  the  present. 
lie  says,  (referring  to  the  act  absolutely  and  indefinitely,)  "  I  wrote  a  let- 
ter." But  while  he  was  writing  the  mail  arrived  ;  he  now  says,  (referring 
definitely  and  relatively  to  the  act  unfinished,  but  in  progress,)  "I  was 
writing  a  letter  when  the  mail  arrived."  Again:  in  speaking  of  the  same 
act,  he  says,  (referring  definitely  and  relatively  to  the  completion  of  the 
act,)  "  I  had  written  a  letter  before  the  mail  left ;  "  or  he  may  say,  (r< 
definitely  and  relatively  both  to  the  progress  and  completion  of  the  act,)  ''I 
had  been  writing  a  letter."  These  fornis  are  used,  first,  because  the  time. 
mw  wholly  past,  including  no  part  of  Wednesday ;  secondly,  because  as 


ETYMOLOGY  —  TENSE8.  67 

ndefinite  absolute  act  in  past  time  requires  the  simple  past,  wrote;  a  defi 
nite  relative  and  progressive  act  in  past  time  requires  the  pas*  pro 
gressive  form,  was  writing ;  while  a  completed  relative  act  in  past  time 
requires  the  past  perfect,  had  written,  and  a  completed  progressive  past 
act  requires  the  past  perfect  progressive,  had  been  writing.  Now,  let  the 
speaker  assume,  not  Wednesday,"  (though  that  be  the  day  of  speaking,  as 
before.)  but  the  wJiole  week,  as  the  present;  he  cannot  say,  "I  am  writ- 
ing,'" for  the  act  is  not  now  going  on  ;  he  cannot  say,  "I  wrote,"  for  the 
act  is  included  in  the  time  assumed  as  present,  i.  e.,  the  time  is  not  wholly 
past.  But  he  can  say,  (referring  to  the  completion  of  the  act  in  the  as- 
sumed present,)  "  I  have  written  a  letter,"  (this  week ;)  or,  (referring  bolh 
to  the  progress  and  completion  of  the  act,)  "  I  have  been  writing  a  letter," 
(this  week.*)  These  forms  are  used,  first,  because  the  time  (one  week)  is 
not  wholly  past,  and  secondly,  because  the  nature  of  the  act,  as  before, 
requires  them. 

The  future  t3nse  represents  what  will  take  place  in  future 
time  ;  as,  "  I  shall  see."  "  I  shall  be  seeing."  "  I  shall  be 
seen." 

Rem.  —  The  future,  like  the  simple  present  or  past,  is  used  to  denote 
a  future  custom  ;  as,  "  Ephraim  shall  not  envy  Judah,  and  Judah  shall  not 
vex  Ephraim."     "  The  lion  shall  eat  straw  like  the  ox." 

The  future  perfect  tense  represents  an  event  as  com- 
pleted in  future  time  ;  as,  "  I  shall  have  seen."  "  I  shah 
have  been  seeing"     "  I  shall  have  been  seen." 


TENSES  IN  ALL  THE  MODES. 

The  subjunctive  mode  has  six  tenses  —  the  same  as  the 
indicative. 

The  potential  mode  has  four  tenses  —  the  present,  present 
perfect,  past,  anu  past  perfect. 

The  infinitive  has  two  tenses  —  the  present  and  perfect. 

The  imperative  has  only  one  tense  —  the  present. 

Rem.  1.  —  Tense,  in  the  subjunctive  mode,  doe*  not  usually  mark  tmie 
with  the  same  exactness  as  in  the  indicative. 

(1.)  In  conditional  clauses,  if  the  thing  spoken  of  denotes  something  actual,  or  ta- 
ken as  actual,  the  tense  form  usually  denotes  the  true  time ;  as,  "  If  it  rained,  I  did 
not  know  it."  Rut  if  it  refers  to  something  merely  hypothetical  or  supposed,  the 
oast  tense  represents  present  time,  and  the  past  perfect,  past  time;  as,  "  If  I  we*$ 
going  now.  (but  I  cannot,)  I  should  ride."  "  If  I  had  had  an  opportunity  yesterday, 
t.i't  I  bad  none,)  I  should  have  spi  ken  to  him." 


*  To  the  Teacher.  —  In  drilling  pupils  on  tense,  it  is  important,  first,  to  give 
t  clear  idea  of  what  is  assumed  as  present.  It  is  not  always  expressed  as  above 
'Wednesday,  a  week,)  but  is  more  frequently  assumed  without  notice,  mereiy  implied  , 
*s,  "  Fie  has  writt n-*'  In  the  second  place,  the  nature  or  state  of  the  act  as  indefiml* 
pwfrftwiw,  eomplird,  or  progressive  completed,  should  be  Cully  exhibited. 


68  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

(•J.)  The  verb  to  be  has  a  distinct  form  for  tlie  past  tense  used  hypothetical!}  ar.a 
denoting  present  time ;  as,  "  If  I  were  not  Alexander,  I  would  be  Diogenes." 

(!1.)  Wer-e  in  this  use  cannot  stand  for  would  be,  or  would  havebrcn,  although  in  oth- 
er uses  it  may  ;  as,"  It  were  an  impossibility  to  raise  the  requisite  sum."  Hud,'m 
like  manner,  is  used  for  would  or  would  have  ;  as,  "  I  hod  rather  be  a  dog,  and  bay  the 
moon,  than  such  a  Roman."  "  It  had  been  better  for  him  if  he  had  uursucd  the  up 
posite  course." 

Rem.  2.  —  The  tenses  in  the  potential  mode  have  by  no  means  the 
signification  which  their  names  denote. 

(1.)  The  present  denotes  present  possibility,  permission,  ability,  or  necessity  to  per- 
form an  act  sometimes  present,  and  sometimes  future }  as,  "  We  may  (now)  go  (to- 
morrow.)" "  You  can  (now)  write  (now.)"  "  lie  must  (74010)  leave,"  {now,  to-mor- 
row, next  week.) 

(2.)  The  present  perfect  generally  denotes  a  present  possibility,  necessity,  &c,  that  a 
past  act  was  performed  ;  as,  "  I  must  have  written  "  —  It  is  now  undeniable  that  1 
wrote  (yesterday.) 

(3.)  The  past  denotes  (a.)  a  past  possibility,  &c,  to  perform  an  act ;  as,  "  Can  you 
write?"  "  I  could  write  yesterday.'1  u  He  would  often  sit  the  entire  evening  with- 
out uttering  a  word."  Would,  and  might  are  now  seldom,  if  ever,  used  to  denote 
past  time.  (6.)  It  denotes  the  present  possibility,  &c,  when  followed  by  a  conditional 
clause  ;  as,  "  I  might  or  could  go  (now)  if  I  would."  "  I  should  or  would  po  (now)  if  I 
could."  (c.)  It  denotes  &  future  possibility,  &lc.  ;  as,  "  I  shall  not  go  ;  but  if  1  should 
go,  (hereafter,)  1  could  (hereafter)  walk,  (d.)  ft  denotes  a  universal  duty  without 
reference  to  time  ;  as,  "  Children  should  ,  bnj  their  parents." 

(4.)  The  past  perfect  denotes  usually  a  past  possibility,  &.c,  but  by  no  means  a  past 
completed  act,  as  in  the  indicative,  thus:  "  I  could  have  assisted  you  (yesterday)  if 
you  had  desired  ii  "  —  I  was  able  to  assist  you. 

Rem.  3.  —  The  infinitive  mode  has  but  two  tenses,  the  present  and  per 
feet.  They  denote,  the  former  an  indefinite  or  progressive,  and  the  latter 
a  completed  state  of  the  act;  as,  "  To  torite."  "  To  be  writing.*'  "  To 
have  written."     "  To  have  been  writing." 

(1.)  The  infinitive,  like  the  participle,  may  be  connected  with  any  mode  or  tense  of 
the  principal  verb. 

(2.)  The  present  infinitive  denotes  a  time  present  with  that  of  the  principal  verb, 
3nd  not  necessarily  present  with  the  speaker  ;  as,  "  I  intend  to  write."  "  I  intended 
tt  write."     "  I  hail  intended  to  writ'."     "  I  shall  hegin  to  write." 

(.'{.)  The  perfect  denotes  a  past  act  completed  at  the  time  denoted  by  the  principal 
verb;  as,  "  She  is  stud  to  have  sung."  "She  was  thought  to  have  written."  "She 
will  be  known  to  have  done  it." 

Rem.  4.  —  The  imperative  has  only  the  present  tense,  which  denotes  the 
time  of  giving  a  command  ;  the  time  of  its  performance  is  future. 


EXERCISES. 

Tell  the  tenses  of the  folloioing  vet  bs  :  — 

Did  you  hear  the  lecture  ?  He  listened  earnestly.  I  hope  to  find  the 
study  interesting.  It  will  not  rain.  He  had  intended  to  go.  I  have  heard 
the  Irish  orator.  He  saw  the  constellation  of  the  Southern  Cross.  Is  he 
confident  of  success  ">  He  will  have  learned  his  lesson  by  the  time  we  Irish 
to  leave.  I  shall  have  finished  my  work  when  Sarah  comes.  The  chil^ 
cried.  Was  the  view  pleasant  ?  Is  he  intelligent  ?  Are  the  notes  of  the 
nightingale  sad  ?  Had  she  read  the  book  ?  She  is  loved  by  all.  The  hills 
were  covered  with  snow. 

Tell  the  tenses  of  the  following  verbs;  also  which  denote  the  reception 


ETYMOLOGY  —  FORMS  OF  THE  VERBS.      .  69 

tf  an  act,  Which  the  vhogkess,  which  the  r  ompeetion  of  an  act,  and 
which  an  indefinite  act :  — 

The  paper  is  published  in  Boston.  Is  he  planting  the  seed  ?  Has  Frank 
been  drawing  ?  She  found  her  lost  treasure.  I  shall  be  allowed  to  go 
When  will  she  go  to  ride  ?  Have  they  been  to  the  concert  ?  He  sings. 
He  is  teaching.  Happiness  will  be  her  portion.  Sorrow  is  the  common 
lot.  Have  you  been  taught  to  sew  ?  Had  he  heard  the  good  news  ?  1 
wish  to  go.  I  will  not  be  denied.  He  shall  not  forget  the  penalty.  FLw« 
ers  bloom.  Stars  fade.  They  will  have  gone  when  you  come.  He  tore 
the  book.  You  saw  the  bright  star.  When  will  you  go  ?  What  shall  I 
do  ?  William  has  gained  the  prize.  Have  you  been  to  Europe  ?  She 
writes  easily.  He  has  been  learning  to  skate.  He  tells  me  pleasant  sto- 
ries. She  will  always  do  right.  He  did  right.  He  loves  the  right.  The 
clock  has  struck.  He  was  never  known  to  tell  a  lie.  He  had  been  pro- 
moted. She  is  contented.  You  do  not  think  so.  You  will  learn  to  know 
her  better.  It  shall  not  be.  He  is  deceived.  He  has  fallen  from  the 
tree.  He  broke  his  arm.  He  ran  away.  He  was  carrying  the  package. 
She  had  been  home. 


FORMS  OF  THE   VERB. 

Transitive  verbs  may  have  four  forms  —  the  common,  the 
emphatic,  the  progressive,  and  the  passive ;  as,  "  I  love." 
"  I  do  love."     "  I  am  loving."     "  I  am  loved." 

Rem.  —  The  emphatic  form  is  confined  to  the  present  and  past  indica- 
tive, and  the  present  imperative.  The  other  forms  are  extended  through 
all  the  modes  and  tenses. 

Intransitive  verbs  may  have  three  forms  —  the  common, 
the  emphatic,  and  the  progressive  ;  as,  "  I  sit"  "  I  do  sit." 
"  I  am  sitting" 

The  common  form  represents  an  act  indefinitely,  as  a  cus- 
tom, or  as  completed  without  reference  to  its  progress  ;  as, 
'« I  love."     "  I  loved."     "  I  shall  love."    "  I  have  loved." 

Rem. — The  variations  of  this  form,  in  the  second  and  third  persons,, 
as  seen  in  the  terminations  est  and  eth,  belong  to  what  is  called  the  solemn 
style.  They  are  found  in  the  Scriptures,  in  forms  of  prayer,  and  in  various 
sacred  books. 

The,  emphatic  form  represents  an  act  with  emphasis  ;  as 
kt  I  do  write."     "  I  did  write." 

Rem.  —  This  form  is  used  in  interrogative  or  negative  sentences  without 
tmphasis  ;  as,  "  Do  yiu  write  f  "     "  Did  you  write  t  "     "  I  do  not  write." 

The  progressive  form  represents  the  progress  of  an  un- 
finished act ;  as,  "  1  am  ivriting." 

Rem.  —  In  the  perfect  tenses,  it  represents  the  completion  of  a  progres- 
sive act;  as,  "I  have  bean  ivt-'tiny."     "  I  shall  have  been  ivriting. 


?0  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

The  passive  form  represents  the  reception  of  an  act ;  as, 
4  I  am  loved"     "  I  was  loved"     "  I  shall  be  loved." 

Rem.  1.  —  The  perfect  tenses  of  this  form  are  used  when  we  wish  U 
represent  the  completion  of  a  passive  state;  as,  "I  have  been  humored.* 
u  I  hud  been  honored."     "  I  shall  have  been  honored." 

11km.  2.  —  The  following  table  gives  the  forms  for  each  divison  of  time, 
with  a  description  of  the  state  of  the  act :  — 


FOIIMS  FOR  EACH  DIVISION  OF  TIME. 


Present. 


Time. 
Present 


I. 

Act. 
Indefinite. 

Progressive  incomplete. 
Complete. 

Progressive  complete. 
Indefinite  emphatic. 
Indefinite  received.* 
Progressive  received.* 
Complete  received.* 


Example. 

He  writes. 

He  is  writing. 

He  has  written. 

He  has  been  writing. 

He  dors  write. 

The  letter  is  written. 

The  house  is  building. 

The  letter  has  been  written. 


Past. 


II.    Past. 

Indefinite. 

Progressive  incomplete. 
Complete. 

Progressive  complete. 
Indefinite  emphatic 
Indefinite  received.* 
Progressive  received.* 
Complete  received.* 


He  wrote. 

He  was  writing. 

He  had  written. 

He  had  been  writing. 

He  did  write. 

The  letter  was  written. 

The  house  was  building. 

The  letter  had  been  written. 


III.    Future. 

1.  Future.  Indefinite. 

2.  "  Progressive  incomplete. 

3.  "  Complete. 

4.  "  Progressive  complete. 

5.  "  Indefinite  received.* 

6.  "  Progressive  received. 

7.  "  Complete  received.* 


He  will  write. 

He  will  be  writing. 

He  will  have  written. 

He  will  have  been  writing. 

The  letter  will  be  written. 

The  house  will  be  building. 

The  letter  will  have  been  written 


Each  part  of  the  van  ms  forms  contributes  a  share  towards  the  general 
meaning  of  the  tense,  and  every  compound  tense  should  be  analyzed. 


MODELS   FOR  ANALYSIS. 

We  are  marching.  .  .  ,  Are  is  an  auxiliary  verb,  denotes  present  lime, 
and  asserts  a  thing  as  actual  ;  marching  is  a 
present  participle,  denoting  a  progressive  act ; 
hence  are  marching  is  the  present  tense,  indica- 
tive mode,  progressive  form. 

lie  write Do  is  an  auxiliary  verb, denotes  the  present  tense, 

asserts  a  thin";  as  actual,  and  imparts  emphasis  ; 
tcrite  denotes  the  act  used  indefinitely  ;  hence 
do  write  is  the  present  indies*-?  nrp^atv 
form. 


*  By  the  subject 


ETYMOLOGY  —  AUXILIARIES.  71 

tie  will  sing Will  is  an  auxiliary  verb,  der.  fltes  future  time. 

(simply  predicts,)  and  asserts  a  thing  as  actual ; 
sing  denotes  the  act  used  indefinitely ;  hence 
will  sing  is  in  the  future  tense,  indicative  mode. 

He  has  conquered Has  is  an  auxiliary  verb,  denotes  present  time, 

is  a  sign  of  completed  action,  and  asserts  a  thing 
as  actual ;  conquered  is  the  past  participle  of 
conquer,  denoting  a  completed  or  perfect  act ; 
hence  has  conquered  is  the  present  perfect  in- 
dicative. 

/  had  been  writing Had  is  an  auxiliary  verb,  denotes  past  time,  is  a 

sign  of  completion,  and  with  been  asserts  a  thing 
as  actual ;  been  is  the  past  participle  of  the  aux- 
iliary to  be,  and  is  used  to  denote  completion : 
writing  is  the  present  participle  of  write,  formed 
by  adding  ing,  (Rule  II.,  p.  16,)  and  denotes  a 
progressive  act ;  hence  had  been  tcriti^g  is  the 
past  perfect  progressive  indicative. 

They  will  have  fought.  .  .  Will  is  an  auxiliary  verb ;  it  denotes  future  time, 
(simply  predicts,)  and  asserts  a  thing  as  actual ; 
have  is  a  sign  of  completion ;  hence  will  havt 
is  the  sign  of  future  completion  ;  fought  is  tho 
past  participle  of  fight ;  it  denotes  completion  ; 
hence  will  have  fought  is  the  future  perfect 
tense  indicative. 

I  may  read May  is  an  auxiliary  verb ;  it  denotes  present  time, 

asserts  a  thing  as  imagined  or  thought  of,  (not 
as  actual,)  and  gives  permission;  read  denotes 
an  indefinite  act ;  hence  may  read  is  the  pres 
ent  potential  common  form. 

If  he  is  detained. Is  is  an  auxiliary  vert),  denotes  present  time,  and 

of  itself  asserts  a  thing  as  actual,  but  under  the 
influence  of  if  asserts  a  thing  as  doubtful  and 
conditional  ;  detained  is  a  passive  participle, 
denoting  the  reception  of  an  act ;  hence  is  de~ 
tained  is  the  present  passive  subjunctive. 


EXERCISE. 

In  the  same  manner  analyze  the  following  examples  :  — 
The  tempest  has  passed.  The  sun  was  rising.  I  shall  be  satisfied. 
The  sailor  would  have  been  discharged,  if  he  had  not  gisen  a  satisfactory 
excuse.  The  boys  were  anxious  to  go.  The  boy  hoped  to  have  finished 
the  wcrk  before  the  storm  approached.  Go  to  the  prison.  Write  an  an- 
swer. It  may  have  been  delayed.  If  you  should  write  a  correct  lesson, 
you  would  be  commended. 

Write  three  examples  of  the  emphatic  indicative  past ;  three  of  the  pro- 
gressive past  perfect ;  four  of  the  progressive  potential  past  perfect ;  alM 
any  other  which  your  teacher  may  give. 

Select  from  your  Reader  one  example  of  each  tense,  and  analyze  it. 

Tell  the  mode,  tense,  and  form  of  each  of  the  following  verbs:-" 

Shepherd,  lead  on.     Sweet  is  the  breath  of  morn.     These  are  J.hy  works. 

He  will  be  coming.     Silence  filled  the  courts  of  heaven.     A  little  new 

born  spirit  knelt  before  the  Eternal  Throne.      Thus  far  shalt  thou  g-» 

He  leads  them  forth  through  golden  portals.     Truth,  crushed  to  earth 


72  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 


ehal!  zise  again  Do  thou  in  secret  pray  ?  "When  the  eye  saw  him,  then 
it  blessed  him.  If  thy  brother  die,  he  shall  live  again.  It  is  sown  a  nat 
ural  body,  it  is  raised  a  spiritual  body.     By  that  time  he  will  have  beei 


reaping  his  wheat  Books  were  ready  comrades,  whom  he  could  no- 
tire.  Thou  must  go  to  rest.  He  sunk  to  repose  where  the  red  heathi 
are  blended.  He  has  been  studying  his  lesson.  She  had  seen  better  days 
I  would  have  blessed  the  strand.  Be  exalted,  ye  valleys.  I  will  love  the  sea 
because  it  is  his  grave.  Pale  mourned  the  lily  where  the  rose  had  died 
Suffer  little  children  to  come  unto  me.  He  would  hardly  have  known  him 
She  was  sitting  by  the  side  of  her  friend.  They  were  walking  on  the  beach 
The  sun  will  have  set  when  I  reach  home  If  he  will  do  well,  he  shall  b 
rewarded. 

Correct  the  following  in  all  respects :  — 

Hull  april  first  18  hundred  and  52  my  deer  ant  i  set  down  to  inform  you 
That  i  am  usually  well  i  should  admire  to  see  you  we  was  all  so  glad  when 
"Xou  come  to  our  House  last  febuary  we  was'nt  a  looking  for  you  but  in 
You  come  all  of  A  sudden  i  go  to  school  now  and  study  my  rethmctic  and 
Grammar  book  i  think  i  lern  my  grammer  considerable  "Well  but  the  mas- 
ter says  how  i  dont  rite  Grammatical  i  shall  Be  twelve  Year  old  co 
me  june  i  cant  rite  no  more  for  i  haint  no  more  time  to  —  your  lovin  Nef 
u  lemuel 


AUX1LIAKIES. 

Auxiliary  verbs  are  those  which  are  used  in  conjugating 
other  verbs.     They  are,  — 


PRES. 

Do, 

be, 

have, 

shall,       will, 

may, 

can, 

Past. 

Did, 

was, 

had, 

should,    would, 

might, 

could, 

Rem.  1.  —  Do,  be,  have,  and  will  (when  it  means  to  will,  or  to  leave 
property  by  a  ivill)  are  also  used  as  principal  verbs. 

Rem.  2.  —  The  auxiliary  verbs  are  used  to  form  the  modes  and  tenses 
of  other  verbs,  and  to  give  peculiar  shades  of  meaning  to  the  forms  in 
which  they  are  used.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  language,  these  verbs  were 
undoubtedly  used  as  principal  verbs  followed  by  the  infinitive  of  what  now 
Is  called  the  principal  verb;  as,  may  (to)  go;  can  (to)  read;  must  (to) 
sing.  The  to  was  at  length  dropped,  as  it  is  in  case  of  the  infinitives  fol- 
lowing bid,  dare,  feel,  see,  &c. ;  and  finally,  the  infinitive  came  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  principal  verb,  and  that  on  which  it  depended  became  its 
auxiliary. 

Rem.  3.  —  The  auxiliaries  should  be  regarded  merely  as  form-words,  or 
words  used  to  form  the  tenses,  and  to  show  relations  of  time  and  mode,  as 
the  preposition  is  used  to  show  relations  of  time,  place,  origin,  cause,  man- 
ner, property,  material,  &c.  In  fact,  all  words  used  to  show  a  relation,  of 
whatever  nature,  are  a  species  of  auxiliary.  Prepositions  aid  in  convert- 
ing nouns  into  an  adjective  or  adverbial  use,  thus  :  "  She  plays  with  ease  " 
=  plays  easily.  "  The  oak  of  America  "  =  The  American  oak.  The  rel- 
ative pronoun,  or  the  conjunctive  adverb,  is  an  auxiliary  used  to  form  an 
adjective  or  an  adverb  out  of  a  sentence  ;  thus  :  "  The  rain  washed  away 
the  embankment,"  is  an  independent  sentence ;  but  in  the  sentence,  •  The 
rain  ivhich  (\.  e.,  the  rain)  washed  aicay  the  embankment,  has  done  much 
damage  elsewhere ;  "  the  former  sentence,  by  the  aid  of  which,  has  teen 
converted  into  an  adjective,  used  to  modify  rain.  So  if  we  take  the  two 
sentences,  "  The  sun  rose  ;  "  "  The  cars  left,"  we  may  convert  the  for 
mer  into  an  adverb  by  the  auxiliary  when  thus :  "  When  the  sun  rose. 


ETYMOLOtxVT FORMATION     OF     TENSES. 


73 


the  cars  left."  In  the  progress  of  language,  these  auxiliaries  have  in- 
creased, aud-in  the  same  ratio,  the  inflection  of  the  principal  word  ha* 
diminished.  An  exact  and  familiar  acquaintance  with  their  various  use* 
is  essential  to  a  correct  knowledge  of  language. 

Rem.  4. —  The  auxiliaries,  as  such,  have  only  two  tenses;  the  present 
and  the  past,  except  must,  which  has  no  variation.  They  may  he  thus  rep- 
resented :  — 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE  AUXILIARIES. 


Present. 


Fast.    < 


Singular 

Plural. 

1st.  Per. 

2d  Per. 

3d  Per. 

1st  Per. 

2d  Per. 

3d  Per. 

/ 

Tlwu 

Re 

We 

You 

They 

(■Am 

art 

is 

are 

are 

are 

Do 

dost 

does 

do 

do 

do 

Have 

hast 

has 

have 

have 

have 

Will 

wilt 

will 

will 

will 

will 

Shall 

shalt 

shall 

shall 

shall 

shall 

May 

mayst 

may 

may 

may 

may 

Can 

canst 

can 

can 

can 

can 

,  Must 

must 

must 

must 

must 

must 

(  Was 

wast 

was 

were 

were 

were 

Did 

didst 

did 

did 

did 

did 

Had 

hadst 

had 

had 

had 

had 

Would 

wouldst 

would 

would 

would 

would 

Should 

shouldst 

should 

should 

should 

should 

Might 

mightst 
couldst 

might 

might 

might 

might 

,  Could 

could 

could 

could 

could 

FORMATION  OF  TENSES  — USES  OF  THE  AUXILIARIE& 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 

Present  Tense. 

(1.)  The  common  form  .  .  is  the  first  or  simple  form  of  the  verb  ;  as,  love% 
lovest,  loves. 

(2.)  The  emphatic  form  .  .  prefixes  do,  dost,  does,  to  the  first  form  of  the 
verb  ;  as,  do  love,  dost  love,  does  love. 

(3  )  The  progressive  form  .  prefixes  is,  am,  art,  are,  to  the  present  partici- 
ple of  the  verb  ;  as,  is  loriting,  am  writing,  art 
loritmg. 

(4.)  T/ie  passive  form  .  .  .  prefixes  is,  am,  art,  are,  to  the  passive*  partici- 
ple of  the  verb ;  as,  is  loved,  art  loved,  are 
loved. 

Rem.  1.  —  Do  is  used  primarily  for  emphasis  It  is  used  without  emphasis  in  into*- 
rogative  and  negative  sentences  ;  as,  "  Does  he  write  ?  "  "  He  does  not  tell  the  tnith.' 
It  takta  also  at  the  end  of  the  sentence  the  place  of  the  principal  verb ;  as,  "  I  will 
go  if  70a  do  "  =  go. 

K*m.  2.  —  Be,  as  an  auxiliary,  is  the  pure  abstract  verb,  (Rem.  1,  p.  52,)  and  is  used 


The  same  in  form  as  the  past  participie,  but  not  in  meaning. 

7 


74 


ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 


to  connect  the  participle,  present  or  passive  w':h  the  subject.  It  gives  no  shading  to 
the  meaning  of  the  participle,  as  it  has  no  meaning  to  impart.  It  does  what  impla 
inflection  would  do  if  it  could  be  employed. 


Present  Perfect  Tense. 

(1.)  The  common  form  .  .  prefixes  have,  hast,  has,  to  the  past  participle 
of  the  vert  ;  as,  have  loved,  hast  loved,  has 
loved. 

(2.)  The  progressive  form  .  prefixes  have  been,  hast  been,  has  been,  to  the 
present  participle  of  the  verb ;  as,  have  been 
writing,  hast  been  writing,  has  been  writing. 

(3.)  The  passive  form  .  .  .  prefixes  have  been,  hast  been,  has  been,  to  the 
passive  participle  of  the  verb;  as,  have  been 
loved,  hast  been  loved,  has  been  loved. 

Rem. — Have  probably  once  conveyed  the  idea  of  possession,  governing  an  object 
winch  was  limited  by  a  passive  participle ;  as,  "  He  has  treasures  discovered,"  or, 
"  lie  kas  (or  possesses)  discovered  treasures."  It  has  now  lost  all  idea  of  possession, 
and  is,  in  this  use,  a  simple  auxiliary  ;  the  participle,  also,  having  been  changed  from 
a  passive,  to  an  active  -•  gnification  ;  as,  "  He  has  discovered  valuable  treasures." 


Past  Tense. 

(1.)  The  common  form  .  .  is  the  second  form  of  the  verb ;  as,  loved, 
lovedst. 

(2.)  The  emphatic  form  .  .  prefixes  did,  didst,  to  the  first  form  of  the 
verb  ;  as,  did  love,  didst  love. 

(3.)  The  progressive  form  .  prefixes  teas,  wast,  were,  to  the  present  partici- 
ple of  the  verb ;  as,  was  writing,  wast  writingy 
were  writing. 

(4.)  The  passive  for  ?n  .  .  .  prefixes  was,  wast,  were  to  the  passive  parti- 
ple  of  the  verb ;  as,  was  loved,  wast  loved,  were 
loved. 

Rem.  —  Did  is  the  past  of  do,  and  has  the  same  uses.    The  samo  may  be  said  of 
wis,  which  is  the  past  of  be. 

Past  Perfect    Tense. 

(1.)  The  common  form  .  .  prefixes  had,  hadst,  to  the  past  participle  ;  as, 

had  loved,  hadst  loved. 
(2.)  The  progressive  form  .  prefixes  had  been,  hadst  been,  to  the  present 

participle  of  the  verb;   as,  had  been  writing, 

hadst  been  writing. 
(3)  The  passive  form  .  .  .  prefixes  had  been,  hadst  been,  to  the  passive 

participle  of  the  verb  ;  as,  had  been  loved,  hadst 

been  loved. 

Ran  —  Had  is  the  past  of  have,  and  has  the  same  uses  as  the  latter. 


Future   Tense. 

(1.)  The  common  form  .  .  prefixes  shall,  shalt,  will,  wilt,  to  the  first  form 
of  the  verb  ;  as,  shall  love,  shalt  lore,  will  love, 
wilt  love. 

(2.)  The  progressive  form  .  prefixes  shall  be,  shalt  be,  will  be,  toilt  be,  to 
the  present  pn^idple  of  the  verb  ;  as,  shall  b* 


ETYMOLOGY FORMATION     OF     TENSES.  75 

writing,  will  be  writing,  shalt  be  writing,  wiH 
be  writing. 
(8.)  17ie  passive  form      ,  .  prefixes  shall  be,  shalt  be,  will  be,  wilt  be,  to  the 
passive  participle  of  the  verb  ;  as,  shall  be  loved, 
shaU  be  loved,  will  be  loved,  wilt  be  loved. 


Future  Perfect  Tense. 

(1.)  The  common  form  .  .  prefixes  shall  have,  shalt  have,  will  have,  wili 
have,  to  the  perfect  participle  of  the  verb  ;  as, 
shall  have  loved,  will  have  loved,  wilt  have  loved. 

(2.)  The  progressive  form  .  prefixes  shall  have  been,  will  have  been,  shalt 
have  been,  wilt  have  been,  to  the  present  par- 
ticiple of  the  verb ;  as,  shall  have  been  writ- 
ing, tcilt  have  been,  writing,  will  have  been 
writing. 

(3.)  The  passive  form  .  .  .  prefixes  shall  have  been,  will  have  been,  shalt 
have  been,  wilt  have  been,  to  the  passive  par- 
ticiple of  the  verb ;  as,  shall  have  been  loved, 
wilt  have  been  loved,  will  have  been  loved. 

Note.  —  Shall  and  will  are  used  to  form  the  future  tenses,  and,  with  have, 
shall  or  will  have,)  to  form  the  future  perfect,  in  the  indicative  and  sub- 
junctive modes  ;  as,  I  shall  or  will  learn,  I  shall  or  will  have  learned ;  if  1 
shall  or  will  learn,  if  I  shall  or  will  have  learned. 

Rem.  1.—  Shall  and  will  have  two  significations  —  a  primary  or  original,  and  a  sec- 
ondary or  derived.  ShaU  denotes,  primarily,  obligation ;  as,  n  You  shall  do  it "  =  You 
are  under  obligation  to  do  it ;  this  obligation  may  be  urged  by  the  will  or  determination 
of  another  ;  as,  "  You  are  under  obligation  to  do  it,  and  I  will,  or  am  determined,  that 
the  obligation  shall  be  discharged  ;  "  that  is,  "  That  you  shall  do  it,  is  my  will." 
Hence  shall  denotes  obligation,  and  implies  determination  and  resolution  at  the  same 
t'me.  But  that  which  one  is  obliged  to  do,  whether  by  necessity  or  the  will  of  another, 
is  not  now  done ;  it  is  ?/ct  to  be  done  ;  hence  a  secondary  idea  of  futurity. 

Rem.  2.  —  Will  denotes,  primarily,  volition,  inclination,  purpose,  determination  ;  as, 
"He  will  go  in  spite  of  opposition  "=  He  is  determined  to  go.  But  that  which  one 
inclines,  or  wills,  or  determines  to  do  himself,  or  to  have  another  do,  is  not  now  done  ; 
it  is  yet  to  be  done  ;  hence  will  also  has  a  secondary  idea  of  futurity. 

Rem.  3.  —  In  the  present  use  of  these  auxiliaries  both  these  elements  appear. 

(1.)  Shall  and  will  denote  a  present  resolution,  volition,  inclination,  determination, 
promise,  or  purpose,  with  reference  to  a  future  act ;  as,  "  /  resolve  that  he  shall  write." 
"  I  will  write." 

(2.)  They  denote  simple  futurity  ;  as,  "  /  predict  that  he  will  write."  "  It  willrain 
to-morrow."    "  I  shall  (contrary  to  my  will)  be  overtaken." 

Rem.  4.  —  Besides  that  ot  the  speaker,  two  relations  or  parties  are  necessarily  in 
volved  in  both  these  cases;  the  one  who  resolves  or  predicts,  and  the  one  who  acts. 
Two  cases  may  arise.  (L)  Both  parties  may  be  represented  by  the  same  person  ;  as, 
"  I  resolve  or  determine  that  I  will  write  ; "  or  simply,  "  I  will  write."  "  I  predict  or  be- 
Kece  that  I  shall  write ; "  or  simply,  "  I  shall  write."  "  You  resolve  that  you  will  write." 
"  You  believe  or  predict  that  you  shall  write."  (2.)  Both  parties  may  be  represented 
one  by  one  person,  and  the  other  by  another ;  as, "  J  resolve  that  you  shall  write  ;  "  or 
simply,  "  You  shall  write."  "  I  predict  that  you  will  write  ;  "  or  simply,  "  You  will 
write."  "  You  resolve  that  I  shall  write  ; "  "  You  predict  that  I  shall  (not  roill) 
write."  "He  resolves  that  you  shall  write."  "He  predicts  that  you  will  write." 
In  interrogative  sentences,  the  same  principles  prevail,  but  the  will  or  opinion  of  the 
•econd  person  is  referred  to  ;  as,  "  Shall  he  write  ?  "  that  is,  "  Is  it  your  icill  or  res- 
thition  that  he  shall  write  ?  "  "  Will  it  rain  ?  "  that  is,  "  Is  it  your  opinion  or  predic- 
tion that  it  will  rain  ?  " 

A  careful  inspection  of  these  and  similar  examples  will  justify  the  following  rules  •  — 

Rule  I.  When  the  person  who  resolves  or  predicts  is  not  mentioned,  the  first  per  ton 
is  always  understood  in  affirmative,  and  the  second  in  interrogative  sentences;  as, 
"Yo'i  ghall  go."  (/will  it.)  "Shall  he  go?"  (Do  yon  will  it?)  "  It  will  rain." 
'J  predict  it )     "  Will  U    sin  I  "    (Do  you  predict  it  ?) 


76  ENGLISH     GRAIfMAR. 

Role  II.  Will  should  be  used  when  the  resolution  and  the  action  are  attributed  te 
the  same  person,  and  shall  when  i/tej  are  attributed  to  different  persons;  "  I  vrill 
go."  (I  myself  resolve.)  "Will  you  £0?"  (Do  you  yourself  resolve?)  "He  toiU 
go."  (He  himself  tesolves.)  "  lie  sbu)  go."  (I  resolve.)  "  They  have  determined 
lhat  you  shall  go."    "Shall  he  go?"    (Do  you  resolve?) 

Rule  III.  Shall  should  be  used  when  the  prediction  and  the  action  are  both  attributed 
to  the  same  person,  or  in  any  case,  provided  the  action  be  attributed  to  the  first  person  ; 
and  will  should  be  used  when  the  prediction  and.  the  action  {except  in  the  case  of  the  first 
person)  are  attributed  to  different  persons;  as,  "  You  will  be  promoted."  (I  pre- 
dict it.)  "  I  shall  teach,  or  he  a  teacher."  (I,  he,  you,  or  they,  predict  it.)  "  Will  lie 
teach  ?  "  (Do  you  predict  it  ?)  "  Will  it  rain  ?  "  (Do  you  think  so  ?)  « It  will  rain." 
'I  think  so.) 

Note.  —  These  rules  embody  all  the  principal  uses  of  shall  and  will.  But  there 
are  some  exceptions  and  anomalous  cases,  which  will  easily  be  recognized. 

In  the  following  sentences, do  shall,  and  will  resolve  or  predict  ?  — 
I  will  go  to  the  party.  You  shall  not  leave  the  room.  It  will  be  a  sad 
day  for  him.  He  shall  do  as  I  tell  him.  He  will  come  to  see  me.  I  shall 
go  to  see  my  sister.  I  shall  see  him  to-morrow.  In  the  day  that 
thou  eatest  thereof  thou  shalt  surely  die.  Thou  wilt  show  me  the  path  of 
life.  He  will  be  elected.  Perhaps  I  shall  find  my  book.  I  will  fear  no 
evil.  I  will  dwell  in  the  house  of  my  God  forever.  Shall  I  go  to  ride  ? 
Will  she  do  it  ?  In  spite  of  all  your  objections,  I  •will  do  it.  The  sun  will 
shine.  The  clock  will  strike.  Shall  you  go  to  the  lecture  ?  When  will 
the  time  come  ?    Will  he  do  well  ? 

Correct  the  following  examples  by  giving  the  right  use  of  shall  and  will :  — 
I  will  receive  a  letter  when  my  brother  comes.  If  they  make  the 
changes,  I  do  not  think  I  will  like  them.  Will  we  have  a  good  time,  if  we 
go  ?  Perhaps  you  shall  find  the  purse.  I  will  be  unhappy  if  you  do  not 
come.  I  will  be  afraid  if  it  is  dark.  Surely  goodness  and  mercy  shall  fol- 
low me,  and  I  will  dwell  in  the  house  of  the  Lord  forever.  I  resolve  that  he 
will  return  with  me.  I  will  be  obliged  to  you.  I  will  be  punished.  What 
sorrow  will  I  have  to  endure !  The  moon  shall  give  her  light.  Will  I 
write  ?  He  is  resolved  that  Mary  will  go.  If  we  examine  the  subject, 
we  will  perceive  the  error.  I  will  suffer  from  poverty  ;  nobody  shall  help 
me.    When  shall  you  go  ^th  me  ?    Where  will  I  leave  you  ? 


POTENTIAL  MODE. 
Present   Tense. 

(1.)  The  common  form  prefixes  may,  mayst,  can,  canst,  must,  to  the 
first  form  of  the  verb  ;  as,  may  love,  mayst  love, 
oan  love,  canst  love,  must  love. 

(2.)  The  progressive  forn  .  prefixes  may  be,  mayst  be,  can  be,  ca?ist  be,  must 
he,  to  the  present  participle  of  the  verb ;  as, 
may  be  toriting,  mayst  be  writing,  can,  be  writ- 
ing, canst  be  writing,  must  be  writing. 
3.)  The  passive  form  .  .  orefixes  may be, mayst  be,  can  be,  canst be,  must 
*,  to  the  passive  participle  of  the  verb;  ag, 
way  be  loved,  mayst  be  loved,  can  be  loved, 
canst  be  loved,  must  be  loved. 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 

(I.)  The  czt*mon  ft  rm  .  .  prefixes  may  have,  mayst  have,  can  have,  canst 
nave,  must  have,  to  the  past  participle  of  the 
verb  ;  as,  may  liave  loved,  mayst  hive  loved, 
can  have  fovhd,  canst  have  loved,  must  ham 
loved. 


ETYMOLOGY —  FOBMATION     OF     TF.NSES. 


77 


(2k)  The  progressive  form  prefixes  may  have  been,  mayst  have  been,  can 
have  been,  canst  have  been,  must  Juxve  been,  to 
the  present  participle  of  the  \erb;  as,  may 
have  been  writing,  mayst  have  been  writing,  can 
have  been  writing,  canst  liavebeen  writing,  must 
have  been  writing. 

(3.)  The  passive  form  .  .  .  prefixes  may  have  been,  mayst  have  been,  can 
have  been,  canst  have  been,  must  have  been,  to 
the  passive  participle  of  the  verb ;  as,  may 
have  been  loved,  mayst  have  been  loved,  can 
have  been  loved,  canst  have  been  loved,  must 
have  been  loved. 


(1  )  The  common  form 


(2.)  The  progressive  form 


(3.)  The  passive  form 


Past   Tense. 

prefixes  might,  mightst,  could,  couldst,  should, 
shouldst,  would,  roouldst,  to  the  first  form  of 
the  verb;  as,  might  love,  mightst  love,  could 
love,  couldst  love,  would  love,  wouldst  love, 
should  love,  shouldst  love. 
prefixes  might  be,  mightst  be,  could  be,  couldst 
be,  would  be,  icouldst  be,  should  be,  shouldst  be,  to 
the  present  participle  of  the  verb  ;  as,  might 
be  writing,  mightst  be  writing,  could  be  writing, 
couldst  be  wriiiny,  would  be  writing,  wouldst  be 
writing,  shotdd  be  writing,  shouldst  be  writing. 
prefixes  might  be,  mightst  be,  could  be,  eoiddst  be, 
would  be,  icouldst  be,  should  be,  shoiddst  be,  to 
the  passive  participle  of  the  verb ;  as,  might  be 
loved,  mightst  be  loved,  could  be  loved,  couldst  be 
loved,  wbidd  be  loved,  woiddst  be  loved,  s/iould 
be  loved,  shouldst  be  loved. 


Past  Perfect  Tense. 

(1.)  The  common  form  .  .  prefixes  might  have,  mightst  have,  could  have, 
eoiddst  have,  should  have,  shoiddst  have,  would 
have,  wouldst  have,  to  the  past  participle  of  the 
verb  ;  as,  might  have  loved,  mightst  have  loved, 
could  have  loved,  couldst  have  loved,  would  have 
loved,  icouldst  have  loved,  should  Jiave  loved, 
shoiddst  have  loved. 

(2.)  The  progressive  form  .  prefixes  might  have  been,  mightst  have  been, 
could  have  been,  couldst  have  been,  would  have 
been,wouldst  have  been,  should  have  been,  shouldst 
have  been,  to  the  present  participle  of  the  verb 
as,  might  have  been  writing,  mightst  have  been 
toriting,  could  have  been  writing,  couldst  have 
been  writing,  should  have  been  writing,  shoiddst 
have  been  writing,  would  have  been  writing, 
woiddst  have  beeii  writing. 

(Jw)  The  passive  form  .  prefixes  might  have  been,  mightst  have  been, 
could  have  been-,  couldst  have  been,  would  have 
been,  wouldst  have  been,  should  have^  been, 
shouldst  have  been,  to  the  passive  participle  of 
the  verb ;  as,  might  have  been  loved,  mightst 
have  been  loved,  could  have  been  loved,  couldst 
have  been  loved,  would  have  been  loved,  wouldst 
have  been  loved,  should  have  been  loved,  shouldst 
have  been  loved 


78  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

Rem.  1.  — •  May  denotes  power  imparted  by  others  that  is,  liberty  or 
permission  t  can  denotes  power  or  ability,  belonging  to  one's  self ;  must 
ienotes  necessity. 

Rem.  2.  —  May  sometimes  denotes  possibility  ;  as,  "  It  may  rain ;  "  "He 
may  have  written  ;  "  sometimes  a  petition  ;  as,  "  Mai/  it  please  you." 

Rem.  3.  —  In  the  present  perfect  these  auxiliaries  are  joined  with  have , 
as,  "  May,  can,  or  must  have  written;  "  and  then  the  entire  form  denotes 
the  present  possibility,  &c,  that  a  past  act  was  performed  ;  as,  "  I  may 
have  spoken  "  =  It  is  (now)  possible  that  I  spoke  (yesterday.) 

Rem.  1.  —  Should  and  would  have  the  same  general  meaning  as  the 
present  tenses  shall  and  will,  and  in  general  they  are  to  the  past  tenses 
what  shall  and  will  are  to  the  present  or  future  ;  as,  "  I  think  I  shall  write." 
M  I  thought  I  should  write."  "  I  think  he  will  go"  "  1  thought  he  would 
go."    (See  Rules  for  the  use  of  shall  and  will.) 

Rem.  2.  —  Might  and  could  also  express  in  past  time  the  same  general 
meaning  as  in  the  present ;  as,  "  I  know  I  may  or  can  go."  "  I  knew  I 
might  or  could  go." 

Rem.  3.  —  Might,  could,  should,  and  woidd  are  used  in  conditional  sen- 
tences, might  in  one  clause  answering  to  coidd  in  the  other,  when  poioer, 
ability,  or  inclination  is  implied;  as,  "  He  might  sing,  if  he  coidd  or 
would.'"  So,  "  He  could  sing,  if  he  would."  "  He  woxdd  sing,  if  he  could." 
Sometimes  the  conditional  clause  is  omitted.  "  He  might  write."  "  He 
could  write."  "  He  would  write."  In  all  these  examples  a  present  possi- 
bility, liberty,  &c,  is  referred  to.  When  past  time  is  referred  to,  we  use 
the  past  perfect  tense;  as,  "He  might  have  written,  if  he  would"  (have 
written.) 

Rem.  4.  —  Might,  could,  would,  and  should,  combined  with  have,  form 
the  past  perfect  tense.  It  is  the  past  perfect  only  in  form.  It  is  equivalent 
to  the  past ;  as,  "  He  could  have  written  "  =  He  was  able  to  write. 


Subjunctive  Mode. 

"With  the  exception  of  the  distinctive  form  in  the  present  and  past,  the 
subjunctive  mode  is  the  same  in  form  as  the  indicative  or  potential,  with 
if,  unless,  though,  &c.,  prefixed ;  as,  "  If  I  love."     "If  I  may  love." 

Imperative  Mode. 

The  imperative  mode  has  but  one  tense,  the  present,  which  is  used  gen 
erally  without  the  subject  expressed,  and  in  all  the  four  forms  of  the  verb 
as,  Study ;  be  thou  studying  ;  be  thou  loved  ;  do  write. 

Infinitive.  Mode. 

The  infinitive  mode  has  two  tenses  -—  the  present  and  the  perfect.  Tht 
present  is  used  in  the  common,  the  progressive,  and  the  passive  form  of  the 
verb,  and  is  formed  by  prefixing  to  to  the  simple  verb  for  the  common 
form,  to  be  to  the  present  participle  for  the  progressive  form,  and  to  be  to 
the.  passive  participle  for  the  passive  form;  as,  to  write;  to  be  ivriting , 
to  be  written. 

The  perfect  is  used  in  the  common,  the  progressive,  and  thepassive  forms 
of  the  verb,  and  is  formed  by  prefixing  to  have  to  the  past  participle  of 
the  verb  for  the  common  form,  to  have  been  to  the  present  participle  for 
the  progressive  form,  and  to  have  been  to  the  passive  participle  for  the  pas> 
B.ie  fornn,  as,  to  have  written;  to  have  been  writing  ■  to  have  been  written 


ETYMOLOGY  —  •  VERB,    ITS    NUMBER    AND   PERSON.         79 


Participles. 

The  present  participle  is  formed  by  adding  ing  to  the  first  form  of  the 
*erb,  (Rule  III.  p.  15 ;)  as,  writing. 

The  past  participle  is  formed  for  regular  verbs  by  adding  ed  to  the  sim- 
ple verb,  (Rule  III.  p.  15  ;)  as,  honored. 

The  perfect  participle  is  formed  by  prefixing  having  to  the  past  participle 
*f  the  verb  for  the  common  form,  'having  been  to  the  present  participle 
for  the  progressive  form,  and  having  been  to  the  passive  participle  for  the 
oassiveform;  as,  having  written ;  having  been  writing ;  having  been  written. 


NUMBER  AND  PERSON  OF  THE  VERB. 

The  number  and  person  of  the  verb  are  properties  which 
ihow  its  agreement  with  the  subject.  Like  the  subject,  the 
verb  has  two  numbers  and  three  persons. 

Rem.  1.  —  The  first  person  singular,  and  the  first,  second,  and  third 
persons  plural,  of  the  present  tense  indicative,  in  all  verbs,  (am,  are,  was, 
tcere,  excepted,)  are  alike.  The  second  person  singular  is  like  the  firnt, 
except  in  the  solemn  or  scriptural  style,  when  it  is  formed  by  adding  st,  or 
est,  to  the'first  person ;  as,  "  Thou  lovest  me  not."  The  third  person  sin- 
gular is  formed  from  the  first,  by  adding  s,  or  es  :  in  the  scriptural  style  it 
cuds  in  eth ;  as,  "  He  qoeth."  Verbs  ending  in  y,  preceded  by  a  consonant, 
rhange  :/  into  i,  and  add  es,  to  form  the  thud  person  singular  ;•  as,  try,  tries. 

Hem.  2.  — By  a  figure  of  enallage,  the  second  person  plural  of  the  pro- 
noun and  verb  is  substituted,  in  conversational  and  familiar  style,  for 
the  second  person  singular  ;  as,  "  Hubert,  you  are  sad  "  =  Hubert,  thoti 
art  s;id 

Rbm.  3.  —  The  imperative  mode  has  usually  only  the  second  person; 
as,  "  Go  thou."  In  some  languages,  the  imperative  has  also  a  form  for 
rhe  first  person  plural,  and  third  person  singular  and  plural  A  i?w  ex 
amplea  seem  to  occur  in  English  ;  as,  "  Rise,  thy  sons."  "  Be  it  decreed." 
Most  of  these  cases,  however,  can  be  explained  by  suj  plying  an  ellipsis  ; 
as,  "  Let  thy  sons  rise."    "  Let  it  be  decreed." 

EXERCISE. 

Determine  the  number  and  person  of  each  of  the  following  subjects,  and 
then  give  the  number  and  person  of  each  of  the  following  verbs  :  — 

Mary  sings.  George  will  fly  his  kite.  I  know  it.  She  would  go.  Henry 
recites  well.  Who  are  they  ?  The  birds  picked  up  the  crumbs.  Hear  tht 
rain.  When  shall  you  go  ?  The  sun  does  not  shine.  The  violets  bloom. 
Roses  will  fade.  Time  flies  on.  Books  are  full  of  instruction.  You  may 
have  your  choice.  What  shall  I  give  her  ?  Cultivate  a  love  for  all  that  is 
oeauliful. 

CONJUGATION. 

The  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  the  regular  arrangement  of 
tts  severa1  modes,  tenses,  voices,  numbers,  and  persons 


80 


ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 


Rem.  1.  —  The  only  tenses  which  change  their  termination  are  the 
present  and  past ;  as,  sit,  sittest,  sits  ;  sat,  sittest ;  tarry,  larriest,  tarriea  ; 
taxried,  tarriedst.    All  other  changes  are  made  by  means  of  auxiliaries. 

Rem.  2.  —  In  adding  s  or  es,  observe  the  same  rules  as  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  plural  of  nouns  ;  as,  play,  plays ;  fly,  flies ;  go,  goes.  So,  also 
observe  the  rules  (p.  15)  for  the  changes  of  the  radical  verb ;  as,  drop, 
dropped,  (Rule  I.  p.  15  ;)  reply,  replied,  (Rule  III.  p.  15.) 

The  principal  parts  of  a  verb  are  the  present  indicative 
the  past  indicative,  and  the  past  participle. 


EXAMPLES. 


Present. 

Past. 

Past  Participle 

Explain, 

Rely, 

Write, 

Shine, 

Hurt, 

explained, 

relied, 

wrote, 

shone, 

hurt, 

EXERCISES. 

explained. 

relied. 

written. 

shone. 

hurt. 

Give  the  principal  parts  of  the  following  verbs:  — 

Sail,  smile,  see,  shut,  close,  open,  burn,  glaze,  gild,  turn,  try    reform, 
renew,  take,  leave,  make,  build,  hope,  fold,  alter,  correct. 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE   VERB   TO  BE. 

Note.  —  Let  the  pupil  study  the  "  Formation  of  the  Tenses     (  p.  73,) 
as  he  learns  the  conjugation  of  the  different  modes  and  tenses. 


INDICATIVE    MODE. 


Singular. 
1.  I  am, 
2   Thou  art, 
3.  He  is ; 


Present  Tense. 


Plural. 
We  are, 
You  are, 
They  are 


Present  Perfect  Tense. 


Singular. 

1.  I  have  been, 

2.  Thou  hast  been, 

3.  He  has  been ; 


Plural 
We  have  been. 
You  have  oeen, 
They  have  been. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  CONJUGATION.  SI 


Past  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural 

1.  I  was,  We  were, 

2.  Thou  wast,  You  were, 

3.  He  was  ;  They  were. 

• 

Past  Perfect  Tense 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had  been,  We  had  been, 

2    Thou  hadst  been,  You  had  been, 

3.  He  had  been ;  They  had  been. 

Future  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural 

1.  I  shall  or  will  be,  We  shall  or  will  be, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be,  You  shall  or  will  be, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  be  ;  They  shall  or  will  be. 

Future  Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1    1  shall  or  will  have  been,  We  shall  or  will  have  been, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been,  You  shall  or  will  have  been, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  hi  ve  been ;  They  shall  or  will  have  been. 


POTENTIAL    MODE. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  be,*  We  may  be, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be,  You  may  be, 
0    He  may  be  ;                                    ,  They  may  be. 


2 


Present  Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  have  been,  We  may  have  been. 

2.  Thou  n  ayst  have  been.  You  may  have  been, 

3.  He  may  have  been  ;  They  may  have  been. 

Past  Tense. 

Singular  Plural. 

1  I  might  be,  We  might  be, 

2  Thou  mightst  be,  You  might  be, 
S   He  might  be;  They  might  be. 

*  t'onpgate  with  each  auxiliary,  or  with  all  united,  thus  :  I  may.  eon,  or  mufi  be 


4 
f2  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plut  al. 

1    I  might  have  been,  We  might  have  been, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been,  You  might  have  been, 

8.  He  might  have  been ;  They  might  have  beer, 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MODE. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural 

1.  If  I  am,  If  we  are, 

2.  If  thou  art,  If  you  are, 

3.  If  he  is  ;  If  they  are. 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  have  been,  If  we  have  been, 

2.  If  thou  hast  been,  If  you  have  been, 

3.  If  he  has  been  ;  If  they  have  been. 

Past  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural 

1.  If  I  was,  '    If  we  were, 

2.  If  thou  wast,  If  you  were, 

3.  If  he  was  ;  If  they  were. 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  had  been,  If  we  had  been, 

2.  If  thou  hadst  been,  If  you  had  been, 

3.  If  he  had  been  ;  If  they  had  been. 

Future  Tense. 

Singular.  Plurah 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  be,  If  we  shall  <t  will  be, 

2.  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  be,  If  you  shall  or  will  be, 

3.  If  he  shall  or  will  be ;  If  they  shall  or  will  bet 

Future  Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

I    If  I  shall  or  will  have  been,  If  we  shall  or  will  have  been, 

i.  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been,  If  you  shall  or  will  h.3.73  been» 

S   If  he  shall  or  will  have  been ;  If  they  shall  or  will  have  been- 


ETYMOLOGY  —  CONJUGATION.  8? 


subjunctive  mode.     (  Subjunctive  jorm.) 

IN otb.  —  Besides  the  forms  already  given,  the  subjunctive  has  anothe* 
in  the  present  and  past,  peculiar  to  itself. 

Present  Tense. 


1. 

2. 
3. 

Singular. 
If  I  be, 
If  thou  be, 
If  he  be ; 

Past  Tense. 

PluraL 
If  we  be, 
If  you  be, 
If  they  be. 

1. 

2. 
3. 

Singular, 

If  I  were, 
If  thou  wert, 
If  he  were ; 

Plural 
If  we  were, 
If  you  were, 
If  they  were. 

IMPERATIVE    MODE. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular. 
Be,  or  Be  thou ; 

Plural. 
Be  ye  or  you. 

INFINITIVE    MODE. 

Present  Tense. 
Present  Perfect. 

To  be. 

To  have  been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present    Being.  Past.    Been. 

Perfect.    Having  been. 

Synopsis  is  a  short  view  of  the  verb,  showing  its  forms  through  the 
modes  and  tenses  in  a  single  number  and  person,  thus  :  In  the  first  per- 
Bon  singular,  we  have,  Ind.  Pres.  I  am  ;  Pres.  Per.  I  have  been ;  Past,  I 
was  ;  Past  Perf.  I  had  been  ;  Fut.  I  shall  be  ;  Fid.  Per.  I  shall  have  been 
Pot.  Pres.  I  may  be ;  Pres.  Per.  I  may  have  been  ;  Past,  I  might  be  ; 
Vast  Perf.  I  might  have  been.     Sub.  Pres.  If  I  am,  &c. 


EXERCISE. 

In  what  mode  and  tense  are  the  folloioing  f  — 

I  am.  He  has  been.  If  I  were.  You  can  be.  He  might  be.  To  hav« 
been.  They  were.  He  wiL  have  been.  You  might  be.  She  had  been. 
You  will  be.  To  be.  I  must  have  been.  Thou  art.  If  he  be.  If  you 
lire.    They  might  have  been.     We  were.    I  had  been.    Thou  wast.     He  is 

Give  a  synopsis  of  to  be,  in  the  Ind.  second  person  singular,  sec. 
plur.,  first  per.  plur.,  sec.  per.  plur.,  third  per.  plur.  Pot.  third  per. 
sing.,  sec.  per.  plur.,  third  per.  plur.  Sub.  sec.  per.  sing.,  sec.  per.  plur., 
third  per.  plur.,  first  per.  plur. 


84 


ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE   REGULAR  VERB    Tt,   LOVK 
ACTIVE    VOICE 

INDICATIVE    MODE 


Present  Tense. 


Singular. 

1.  I  love, 

2.  Thou  lovest. 

3.  He  loves ; 


Plural. 
We  love, 
You  love, 
Thoy  love. 


Present  Perfect  Tense. 


Singular. 

1.  I  have  lovec, 

2.  Thou  hast  loved, 
S.  He  has  loved  ; 


Plural. 
We  have  loved, 
You  have  loved, 
They  have  loved. 


Past  Tense. 


Singular. 

1.  I  loved, 

2.  Thoulovedst, 

3.  He  loved ; 


Plural. 

We  loved, 
You  loved, 
They  loved. 


Past  Perfect  Tense. 


Singular. 

1.  I  had  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadst  loved, 

3.  He  had  loved ; 


Plural 
We  had  loved, 
You  had  loved, 
They  had  loved. 


Singular. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  love, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  love, 

3.  He  shall  or  v/ill  love ; 


Future  Tense. 

Plural. 
We  shall  or  will  love, 


You  shall  or  will  love, 
They  shall  or  will  love. 


Future  Perfect  Tense. 


Singular. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  loved, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  have  loved ; 


Plural. 
We  shal1.  or  will  have  loved, 
You  shall  or  will  have  loved. 
They  shall  or  will  have  loved 


POTENTIAL    MODE. 

Present  Tense. 


Singular. 

1.  I  may  love, 

2.  Thou  mayst  love, 

3.  He  may  love  ; 


Plural. 
We  may  love, 
•You  may  love, 
They  may  love 


ETYMOLOGY 


CONJUGATION. 


85 


Present  Perfect  Tense. 


1.  I  may  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  loved, 

3.  He  may  have  loved  ; 


Plural. 
We  may  have  loved, 
You  may  have  loved, 
They  may  have  loved 


Past  Tense. 


1  I  might  love, 

2  Thou  mightst  love, 
3.  He  might  love ; 


Plural 
We  might  love, 
You  might  love, 
They  might  love. 


Past  Perfect  Tense. 


Singular. 

1.  I  might  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  loved, 
S.  He  might  have  loved : 


We  might  have  loved, 
You  might  have  loved, 
They  might  have  loved 


subjunctive  mode.     (Regular  form.) 
Present  Tense. 


Singular. 

1.  If  I  love, 

2.  If  thou  lovest, 

3.  If  he  loves ; 


Plural. 
If  we  love, 
If  you  love, 
If  they  love 


Present  Perfect  Tense. 

Plural. 

1.  If  I  have  loved,  If  we  have  loved, 

2.  If  thou  hast  loved,  If  you  have  loved, 

3.  If  he  has  loved  ;  If  they  have  loved 


Past  Tense. 


Singular. 

1.  If  I  loved, 

2.  If  thou  lovedst, 

3.  If  he  loved ; 


Plural. 
If  we  loved . 
If  you  loved, 
If  they  loved 


Past  Perfect  Tense. 


Singular. 

1.  If  I  had  loved,  * 

2.  If  thou  hadst  loved, 

3.  If  he  had  loved  ; 

Future  Tense. 

Singular. 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  love, 

2.  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  love, 

3.  If  he  shall  or  will  love ; 

8 


If  we  had  loved, 
If  you  ha  d  loved, 
If  they  had  loved 


Plural. 
If  we  shall  or  will  love 
If  you  shall  or  will  love. 
If  they  shall  or  will  love, 


H6  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 


Future  Perfect  Tense. 


Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  nave  loved,  If  we  shall  or  will  have  loved 

2,  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  loved,  If  you  shall  or  will  have  loved 

3    If  he  shall  or  will  have  loved ;  If  they  shall  or  will  have  lovetc 


SOBJUNCTIVE  mode.     ( Subjunctive  form.* ) 
Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1    If  I  love,  If  we  love, 

2.  If  thou  love,  If  you  love, 

3.  If  he  love ;  If  they  love. 


IMPERATIVE    MODE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

Love,  or  Love  thou  ;  Love,  or  Love  you. 


INFINITIVE    MODE. 
Present,     x'o  love.  Perfect.    To  have  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present.    Loving.  Past.    Loved 

Perfect.     Having  loved. 


PASSIVE    VOICE. 
INDICATIVE    MODE. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  PluraL 

1.  I  am  loved,  We  are  loved, 

2.  Thou  art  loved,  m  You  are  loved, 

3.  He  is  loved  ;  They  are  loved. 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.       '  Plural. 

1.  1  have  been  lorea,  We  have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  hast  been  loved,  You  have  been  loved, 

3.  He  has  been  loved  ;  They  have  been  loved. 


*  fcioe  Rem.  3.  page 


E-n  MOLOGY  —  CONJUGATION.  87 


Past  Tense. 

Singular.  PluraL 

1.  I  was  loved,  We  were  lovecL 

2.  Thou  wast  loved,  You  were  loved, 

3.  He  was  loved  ;  They  were  loved. 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  •  PluraL 

1.  I  had  been  loved,  We  had  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  loved,  Yoti  had  been  loved, 

3.  He  had  been  loved ;  They  had  been  loved 

Future  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

i    I  shall  or  will  be  loved,  We  shall  or  will  be  loved, 

2    Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be  loved,  You  shall  or  will  be  loved, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  be  loved ;  They  shall  or  will  be  loved. 

^Future  Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  PluraL 

1.  I  shall  or  will  have  been  loved,  We  shall  or  will  have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been  loved,  Y.ou  shall  or  will  have  been  loved, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  have  been  loved ;  They  shall  or  will  have  been  loved 


POTENTIAL    MODE. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  be  loved,  We  may  be  loved, 

2.  Thoumaystbe  loved,  You  maybe  loved, 

3.  He  may  be  loved ;  They  may  be  loved. 

Present  Perfect1  Tense. 

Singular.  PluraL 

1.  I  may  have  been  loved,  We  may  have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been  loved,  You  may  have  been  loved, 

3.  He  may  have  been  loved ;  They  may  have  been  loved. 

Past  Tense. 

Singular  Plural. 

1.  I  might  beloved,  We  might  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be  loved,  You  might  be  loved, 

3.  He  might  be  loved ;  They  might  be  loved. 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  PluraL 

1.  I  might  have  been  loved,  We  might  have  been  loved, 

2   Thoumightst  have  been  loved.  You  might  have  been  loved, 

3.  He  might  have  been  loved  ;  They  might  have  been  loved 


B* 


ENGLISH     GRAMMAR 


subjunctive  mode.     ( Regular  form  ) 


Singular. 

1.  If  I  am  loved, 

2.  If  thou  art  loved, 
i    If  he  is  loved  ; 


Present  Tense. 


Plural. 
If  we  are  loved, 
If  you  are  loved, 
If  they  are  loved. 


Present  Perfect  Tense. 


Singular 
I.  If  I  have  been  loved, 
I.  If  thou  hast  been  loved, 
&  If  he  has  been  loved  ; 


Plural. 
If  we  have  been  loved, 
If  you  have  been  loved, 
If  they  have  been  loved. 


Past  Tense. 


Singular. 

1.  If  I  was  loved, 

2.  If  thou  wast  loved, 

3.  If  he  was  loved ; 


Plural. 
If  we  were  loved, 
If  you  were  loved, 
If  they  were  loved. 


Past  Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

If  I  had  been  loved,  If  we  had  been  loved, 

If  you  had  been  loved, 
If  they  had  been  loved. 


If  thou  hadst  been  loved, 
If  he  had  been  loved ; 


Future  Tense. 


Singular. 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  be  loved, 

2.  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  be  loved, 

3.  If  he  shall  or  will  be  loved ; 


Plural. 
If  we  shall  or  will  be  loved, 
If  you  shall  or  will  be  loved 
If  they  snail  or  will  be  loved. 


Future  Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  PluraL 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  have  been  loved,        If  we  shall  or  will  have  been  loved. 

2.  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been  loved,  If  you  snail  or  will  have  been  loved., 
S.  If  he  shall  or  will  have  been  loved ;      If  thev  shall  or  will  have  been  loved 


subjunctive  mode.     ( Subjunctive  -form. 
Present  Tense. 


Singular. 

1.  If  I  be  loved, 

2.  If  thou  be  loved, 

3.  If  he  be  'oved ; 


PluraL 
If  we  be  loved, 
If  you  be  loved, 
If  they  be  loved. 


ETYMOLOGY CONJUGATION. 

Past  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural 

k.  If  I  were  loved,  If  we  were  loved,  . 

2.  If  thou  wert  loved,  If  you  were  loved, 

3.  If  he  were  loved ;  If  they  were  loved. 


IMPERATIVE    MODE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

Be  loved,  or  Be  thou  loved  ;  Be  loved,  or  Be  you  loved. 


INFINITIVE     MODE. 
Present.    To  be  loved.  Perfect.    To  have  been  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present.    Being  loved.  Past  (passive.)  Loved. 

Perfect.    Having  been  loved. 


INTERROGATIVE  AND   NEGATIVE  FORMS. 

A  verb  is  conjugated  interrogatively  in  the  indicative  and 
potential  modes,  by  placing  the  subject  after  it,  or  after  the 
first  auxiliary  ;  as,  Ind.  Do  I  love  ?  Have  I  loved  ?  Did 
I  love  ?  Had  I  loved  ?  Shall  I  love  ?  Shall  I  have  loved  ? 
Pot.  Can  I  love  ?     Can  I  have  loved  ?  &c. 

A  verb  is  conjugated  negatively,  by  placing  the  adverb 
not  after  it,  or  after  the  first  auxiliary  ;  but  the  negative  ad- 
verb should  be  placed  before  the  infinitive  and  participles  ; 
as,  Ind.  I  love  not,  or  I  do  not  love.  I  have  not  loved.  I 
loved  not,  or  I  did  not  love.  I  had  not  loved,  &c.  Inf. 
Not  to  love.  Not  to  have  loved.  Part.  Not  loving.  Not 
loved.     Not  having  loved. 

A  verb  is  conjugated  interrogatively ',  and  negatively,  in 
the  indicative  and  potential  modes,  by  placing  the   subject 
and  the  adverb  not,  after  the  verb,  or  after  the  first  auxiliary 
as,  Love  I   not  5  or  Do  I  not  love  ?      Have  I  not   loved  ? 
Did  I  not  !ove  ?     Had  I  not  loved  ?  &c 
R* 


90  EMU  LI  S  II     GRAMMAR. 


EXERCISES. 


Tell  the  modet  tense,  voice,  number,  and  person  of  the  following ,  — 
She  has  loved.  I  might  love.  We  had  loved.  We  had  been  loved.  H» 
may  have  loved.  If  I  be  loved.  I  love.  He  will  love.  He  shall  have 
loved.  I  have  loved.  They  shall  have  loved.  She  is  loved.  We  may  be 
loved.  You  might  have  been  loved.  If  I  love.  If  they  love.  They 
may  love  We  will  love.  I  had  loved.  Thou  hast  loved.  Thou  wilt  have 
loved.  I  love.  Thou  art  loved.  He  was  loved.  She  will  have  been 
loved. 

Write  or  repeat  afidl  conjugation  of  the  following  verbs:  — 

Relieve,  betray,  defy,  persuade,  resolve,  determine. 

Conjugate  two  of  the  above  verbs  interrogatively,  two  of  them  negatively, 
and  two  of  them  interrogatively  and  negatively. 

Give  a  synopsis  of  either  of  the  above  verbs  in  either  form,  in  the  first, 
second,  or  third  person. 


SYNOPSIS  —  PROGRESSIVE  FORM.  — VERB   READ. 

Note.  —  The  progressive  form  is  the  verb  to  be  joined  to  the  present  par 
ticiple.  The  pupil  should  be  careful  not  to  mistake  this  for  the  passive 
form,  which  is  the  verb  to  &<?  joined  to  the  passive  participle. 

I  am  reading,  I  have  been  reading,  I  was  reading,  I  had  been  reading 
I  shall  be  reading,  I  shall  have  been  reading.  I  may  be  reading,  I  may 
have  been  reading,  I  might  be  reading,  I  might  have  been  reading.  If  I 
am  or  be  reading,  if  I  have  been  reading,  if  I  was  or  were  reading,  if  I 
had  been  reading,  if  I  shall  be  reading,  if  I  shall  have  been  reading.  Ee 
thou  reading.  To  be  reading,  to  have  been  reading.  Reading,  having  been 
reading. 

EXERCISE. 

Write  or  repeat  the  full  conjugation  of  write,  play,  sing,  think,  in  the  pro- 
gressive form. 

Givea  synopsis  of  either  of  the  above  verbs  in  the  second  and  third  persons^ 
singidar  and  plural. 

Tell  the  difference  between  the  progressive  and  passive  forms.  (See  note 
above.) 

Correct  the  following  examples  in  all  respects  :  — 

i  is  going  down  sullur  and  will  be  lookin  up  some  turnups  and  pertaties 
for  dinner.  Mary  did  nothin  for  rufus  said  he  seen  her.  The  steamboat 
come  a  puffin  along  faster  nor  the  fishes  would  keep  out  er  the  way  ont ; 
im  in  a  quandary  whether  the  steamboat  or  Rail  road  goes  fastest,  indian 
Rubers  keeps  oiit  Snow,  mud  and  Reign,  its  the  Erly  bird  what  ketches 
the  wurm. 

SYNOPSIS  —  EMPHATIC  FORM. 

In  the  emphatic  form  the  auxiliary  do  is  added  to  the  simple  verb  foi 
the  present,  and  did  for  the  past.  It  is  found  only  in  the  indicative  and 
inoperative  modes 


ETYMOLOGY CONJUGATION.  91 

Indicative     I  do  love,  I  did  love.      Imperative.    Do  thou  love. 


M 


FORMS    FOR   EACH  DIVISION  OF   TIME    COMBINED 

THE    VERB    TO    MAKE. 

INDICATIVE     MODE. 

Present  Tense. 

1st  Sing. 

I 

2d  Sing. 
Thou 

3d  Sing 
He,  She,  It, 

t    Jndef. 

2.  Prog,  incomp. 

3  Comp. 

4.  Prog.  comp. 

5.  Tnd.   emp. 
C.  Pas.  ind. 

7.  Pas.  prog. 

8.  Pas.  comp. 

make. 

am  making, 

have  made, 

have  been  making, 

do  make, 

am  made, 

have  been  made, 

makest, 

art  making, 

hast  made, 

hast  been  making, 

dost  make, 

art  made, 

hast  been  made, 

makes, 
is  making, 
has  made, 
lias  been  making 
does  make, 
is  made 
is  making.* 
has  been  made. 

1st  Plur. 

2d  Plur. 

3d  Plur. 

We 

Ye  or  You 

They 

..  rndef. 

2.  Prog,  incomp 

i.  Comp. 

4.  Prog.  comp. 

5  fnd.  emp. 

6  Pas.  ind. 

7  Pas.  prog. 

8  Pas.  comp. 

make, 
.  are  making, 
have  made, 
have  been  making, 
do  make, 
are  made, 

have  been  made, 

make, 

are  making, 

have  made, 

have  been  making, 

do  make, 

are  made, 

have  been  made, 

make. 

are  making. 

have  made. 

have  been  making. 

do  make. 

are  made. 

are  making. 

have  been  mad-a. 

Past  Tense. 

1st  Sing. 

I 

2d  Siiig. 
Thou 

3d  Sing. 
He,  She,  It, 

1.  fndef. 

2.  Prog,  incomj 

3.  Comp. 

4.  Prog.  comp. 

5.  Ind    emp. 

6.  Pas.  ind. 

7.  Pas.  prog. 

8.  Pas.  comp. 

made, 
i.  was  making, 
had  made, 
had  been  making, 
did  make, 
was  made, 

had  been  made, 

madest, 
wast  making, 
hadst  made, 
hadst  been  making 
didst  make, 
wast  made, 

hadst  been  made, 

made. 

was  making, 
had  made, 
had  been  making 
did  make, 
was  made, 
was  making, 
had  been  made. 

1st  Plur. 

2d  Plur. 

.     3d  Plur 

We 

Ye  or  You 

They 

Indef. 
2.  Prog,  incomp 

3  Comp 

4  Prog.  comp. 

5  Tnd.  emp. 
(3.  Pas  ind. 

7  Pas  prog. 

8  Pas.  comp. 

made, 
i.  were  making, 
had  made, 
had  been  making, 
did  make, 
were  made, 

had  been  made, 

made, 

were  making, 

bad  made, 

had  been  making, 

did  make, 

were  made, 

had  been  made, 

made. 

were  making. 
bad  made, 
had  been  making. 
did  make, 
ivere  made, 
were  making, 
had  been  made. 

*  The  subject  is  usually  some  inanimate  object ;  as,  "  An  effort  is  making  "    There 
may  be  still  another  form  —  the  pas.  prog.  comp. ;  as,  "  An  effort  has  been  making.  ' 


92 


ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 


Future  'Tense. 


1st  Sing. 
I 
I  fndef.  will  make, 

S  Prog,  incomp.  will  be  making, 
will  have  made, 
will  have  been 


3  Comp, 

4  Ptog.  comp. 

5  Ind.  emp. 

6  Pas  ind. 

7  Pas  prog. 
P  Pas  cornp. 


making, 
will  be  made, 
will  have  been  made. 


2d  Sing. 

Thou 
wilt  make, 
wilt  be  making, 
wilt  have  made, 
wilt  have  been  mak-  ■ 

P'g.  \ 

wilt  be  made, 

wilt  have  been  made. 


3d  Stng 
He,  She,  It, 
will  make, 
will  be  making- 
will  have  made 
will  have  been  ma* 
ing. 

will  be  made, 
will  be  making 
will  have  been  mad« 


1st  Plur. 
We 
will  make, 


2d  Plur. 
Ye  or  You 
will  make, 
will  be  making, 
will  have  made, 
will  have  been  mak- 


l  Tndef 

2.  Prog,  incomp.  will  be  making, 

3  Comp.  will  have  made, 

4.  Pros.  comp.  j  wil1  h*ve  been 

p  (      making.  )      ing, 

5  Tnd.  emp.  ,  — ■ , 

6.  Pas.  ind.  will  be  made,  will  be  made, 

7.  Pas.  prog.  ,  , 

8.  Pas.  comp.  will  have  been  made,  will  have  been  made, 


3d  Plur. 

They 
will  make, 
will  be  making, 
will  have  made, 
will  have  been  mak 

will  be  made, 
will  be  making, 
will  have  been  made. 


IRREGULAR   VERBS. 

An  irregular  verb  is  one  which  does  not  form  its  pas 
tense  and  past  participle  by  adding  ed  ;  as,  see,  saw,  seen  , 
write,  wrote,  written. 

Rem.  —  The  following  list  contains  the  principal  parts  of  the  irregular 
verbs.  Those  verbs  which  are  marked  R.  have  also  the  regular  forms 
and  those  which  are  Italicized  are  either  obsolete  or  are  becoming  so  :  — 

Present 
Abide, 
Am, 
Arise, 
Awake, 

Bear,  (to  bring  forth,) 
Bear,  (to  carry,) 
Beat, 
Begin, 
Bend, 
Bereave, 
Beseech, 
Bid, 

Bind,  Un-, 
Bite, 
Bleed, 
Blow, 
Break, 
Breed, 
Bring, 


Past. 

Past  Participle. 

Abode, 

Abode. 

Was, 

Been. 

Arose, 

Arisen. 

Awoke,  R. 

Awaked.- 

Bore,  bare, 

Born. 

Bore,  bare 

Borne. 

Beat, 

Beaten,  beat. 

Began, 

Begun. 

Bend,  R. 

Bent. 

Bereft,  R. 

Bereft,  r. 

Besought, 

Besought. 

Bid,  bade, 

Bidden,  bid, 

Bound, 

Bound. 

Bit, 

Bitten,  bit 

Bled, 

Bled. 

Blew, 

Blown. 

Broke,  brake, 

Broken,  brolce. 

Bred, 

Bred. 

Brmight, 

Brought 

ETOIOLOGY IRREGULAR 

VERBS.                        93 

Prtitn\ 

Past 

Past  Participle. 

Build,  Re- 

Built,  B. 

Built. 

Burn, 

Burnt,  R. 

Burnt,  R. 

Burst, 

Burst,, 

Burst. 

Buy, 

Bought, 

Bought. 

Cast, 

Cast, 

Cast. 

Catch, 

Caught,  R. 
Chid, 

Caught,  R. 
Chidden,  chid 

Chide, 

Choose, 

Chose, 

Chosen. 

Cleave,  (to 

adhere,) 

Cleaved^  clave, 

Cleaved. 

Cleave,  (to  split,) 

Clove,  cleft,  cla,ve, 

Cleft,  cloven,  R. 

Cling, 
Clothe, 

Clung, 

Clung. 

Clad,  R. 

Clad,  R. 

Come,  Be- 

Came., 

Come. 

Cost, 

Cost, 

Cost. 

Creep, 

Crept, 

Crept. 

Crow, 

Crew,  r. 

Crowed. 

Cut, 

Cut, 

Cut. 

Dare,  (to  venture,) 

Durst, 

Dared. 

Dare  (to  challenge)  is  R. 

Dared, 

Dared. 

Deal, 

Dealt,  R. 

Dealt,  r. 

Dig, 

Dug,  R. 

Dug,  R. 

Do,  Mis-, 

Un-, 

Did, 

Done. 

Draw, 

Drew, 

Drawn. 

Dream, 

Dreamt,  R. 

Dreamt,  R. 

Drink, 

Drank, 

Drunk,  dra»k. 

Drive, 

Drove, 

Driven. 

Dwell 

Dwelt,  R. 

Dwelt,  R. 

Eat, 

Ate,  eat, 

Eaten. 

Fall,  Be-, 

Fell, 

Fallen. 

Feed, 

Fed, 

Fed. 

Feel, 

Felt, 

Felt. 

Fight. 

Foucht. 

Fought. 

Find, 

Found. 

Found. 

r'let 

Flea. 

Fled. 

fling 

Flung. 

Flung. 

fly. 

Flew. 

Flown. 

Forbear. 

roroore. 

Forborne. 

Forget, 

c  argot. 

Forgotten,  forgot. 

Forsake. 

forsook. 

Forpaken. 

Freeze, 

Froze, 

Frozen. 

Freight, 

Freighted, 

Fraught,  R. 

Get,  Be-. 

For- 

Got. 

Got,  "gotten. 

Gild. 

Gilt,  k 

Gilt,  r. 

Gird,  Be-. 

En- 

Girt,  &. 

Girt,  r. 

Give.  For- 

.  Mis- 

Gave 

Given. 

Go. 

Went. 

Gone. 

Grave.  En 

Graved. 

Graven,  ? 

Grind. 

Ground. 

Ground 

Grow. 

urrew, 

Grown.. 

Hang, 

Hung, 

Hung. 

Have, 

Had, 

Had. 

Hear, 

Heard, 

Heard. 

Heave 

Hove,  it. 

Hoven,  r. 

Hew, 

Hewed, 

Hewn,  r. 

Hide, 

Hid, 

Hidden,  hid. 

Hit, 

Hit, 

Hit. 

*  Hang,  to  takj  way  lift  by  hinging 

,  is  regulai 

94 


ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 


Present. 

Past 

Hold,  Be-,  With  , 

Held, 

Hurt, 

Hurt, 

Keep, 

Kept, 

Kneel, 

Knelt,  R 

Knit, 

Knit,  R. 

Know, 

Knew, 

Lade,  to  load,* 

Laded, 

Lay, 

Laid, 

Lead,  Mis-, 

Led, 

Leave, 

Left,       * 

Lend, 

Lent, 

Let, 

Let, 

Lie,  (to  recline,) 

Lay, 

Light, 

Lit,  R. 

Load, 

Loaded, 

Lose, 

Lost, 

Make, 

Made, 

Mean, 

Meant, 

Meet, 

Met, 

Mow, 

Mowed, 

P*y.  Re-, 

Paid, 

Pen,  (to  enclose,) 

Pent,  R. 

Put, 

Put, 

Quit, 

Quit,  r. 

Read, 

Read, 

Rend, 

Rent, 

Rid, 

Rid, 

Ride, 

Rode,  rid, 

Ring, 

Rang,  rung, 

Rise,  A-, 

Rose, 

Rive, 

Rived, 

Rot, 

Rotted, 

Run, 

Ran,  run.. 

Saw, 

Sawed, 

Say, 

Said, 

See, 

Saw, 

Seek, 

Sought 

Seethe, 

Sodi  r. 

Sell, 

Sold, 

Send, 

Sent, 

Set,  Be-, 

Set, 

Shake, 

Shook, 

Shape,  Ms- 

Shaped, 

Shave, 

Shaved, 

Shear, 

Sheared, 

Shed, 

Shed, 

Shine, 

Shone,  R. 

Shoe, 

Shod, 

Shoot, 

Shot, 

Show, 

Showed, 

Shred, 

Shred, 

Shrink 

Shrunk,  shrank, 

Shut, 

Shut, 

Sink, 

Sang,  sung, 
Sunk,  sank, 

Sit, 

Sat, 

Past  Pwicipte 

Held,  holdett- 

Hurt. 

Kept. 

Knelt,  R. 

Knit,  R. 

Known. 

Laden. 

Laid. 

Led. 

Left. 

Lent. 

Let. 

Lain. 

Lit,  R. 

Laden, R 

Lost. 

Made. 

Meant. 

Met. 

Mown,  r. 

Paid. 

Pent,  R 

Put. 

Quit,  R. 

Read. 

Rent. 

Rid. 

Ridden,  ri£ 

Rung. 

Risen. 

Riven,  R. 

Rotten,  R. 

Run. 

Sawn,  R. 

Said. 

Seen. 

Sought. 

Sodden,  R. 

Sold. 

Sent. 

Set. 

Shaken. 

Shapen,  R. 

Shaven,  R. 

Shorn,  R. 

Shed. 

Shone,  R 

Shod. 

Shot. 

Shown. 

Shred. 

Shrunk. 

Shut. 

Sung. 

Sunk. 

Sat. 


*  Lade,  to  dip,  is  regular. 


ETYMOLOGY  —    IRREGULAR     VERBS. 


95 


Present. 
Slay, 
Sleep, 
Slide, 
Sling, 

Slink, 

Slit, 

Smite, 

Sew,  (to  scatter,) 

Speak,  Be-, 

Speed, 

Spell, 

Spend.,  Mis-, 

Spill, 

Spin, 

Spit,  Be-, 

Split, 

Spread,  Be-, 

Spring, 

Stand,  With-,  &c, 

Steal, 

Stick, 

Sting, 

Stride, 
.  Strike, 

String, 

Strive, 

Strow,  or  Strew,  Be-, 

Swear, 

Sweat, 

Sweep, 

Swell, 

Swim, 

Swing, 

Take,  Be-,  &c., 

Teach,  Mis-,  Re-, 

Tear, 

Tell, 

Think,  Be-, 

Thrive, 

ThroAV, 

Thrust, 

Tread, 

Wax, 

Wear, 

Weave, 

Weep, 

Wet, 

Whet, 

Win, 

Wind, 

Work, 

Wring 

Write, 


Past. 

Past  Participle 

Slew, 

Slain. 

Slept, 
Slid, 

Slept. 

Slidden, 'slid. 

Slung,  slang, 
Slunk, 

Slung. 

Slunk. 

Slit, 

SUt,  R. 

Smote, 

Smitten,  smit. 

Sowed, 

Sown,  R. 

Spoke,  spafce, 

Spoken. 

Sped, 

Sped. 

Spelt,  R. 

Spelt,  R. 

Spent, 

Spent. 

Spilt,  R. 

Spilt,  R 

Spun,  span, 

Spun. 

Spit,  spat, 

&£ 

Spilt, 

Spilt. 

Spread, 

Spread. 

Sprang,  sprung, 

Sprung. 

Stood, 

Stood. 

Stole, 

Stolen. 

Stuck, 

Stuck. 

Stung, 

Stung 

Stroke,  strid, 

Stridden,  strid. 

Struck, 

Struck,  stricken 

Strung, 

Strung. 

Strove, 

Striven. 

Strowed  or  strewed, 

Strown,  strewn,  m 

Swore,  sware, 

Sworn. 

Sweat,  r. 

Sweat,  R. 

Swept, 
Swelled, 

Swept. 
Swollen,  r. 

Swam,  swum, 

Swum. 

Swung, 

Swung. 

Took, 

Taken. 

Taught, 

Taught. 

Tore,  tare, 

Torn. 

Told, 

Told. 

Thought, 

Thought. 

Throve,  R. 

Thriven,  K 

Threw, 

Thrown. 

Thrust, 

Thrust. 

Trod, 

Trodden,  trod. 

Waxed, 

Waxen,  R. 

Wore, 

Worn. 

Wove, 

Woven. 

Wept, 

Wept 

Wet,  R. 

Wet,  R. 

Whet,  R. 

Whet,  r 

Won, 

Won. 

Wound,  R. 

Wound. 

Wrought,  R. 

Wrought,  &. 

Wrung,  R. 

Wrung. 

Wrote, 

Written. 

96  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR 


EXERCISES 

Give  thopajt, and  past  participle  of  teach,  ling,  write,  read,  hurt,  siv 
arise,  take,  beat,  tell,  &c.,  &c. 

Give  the  present  and  past  for  the  following  past  participles  :  Thrown, 
sworn,  swum,  built,  spoken,  stolen,  &c,  &c, 

Correct  the  following  examples  :  — 

The  blossoms  have  fell  from  the  trees.  Mary  come  to  scnool  in  haste. 
Sarah's  exercise  is  wrote  badly.  The  thief  stoled  the  money  and  telled  % 
falsehood  about  it.  The  lake  is  froze  hard.  Charles  has  took  the  wrong 
course.  The  bell  ringed  loud.  The  soldiers  fit  bravely.  She  did  not  git 
the  premium.  The  exercise  is  writ  badly.  James  has  not  spoke  the 
truth.  A  sad  misfortune  has  befell  him.  The  carriage  was  drawed  by 
four  horses.  Being  weary  I  laid  down  and  ris  much  refreshed.  The 
ball  was  throwed  too  high.  I  see  the  soldiers  when  they  come.  The 
wind  has  blowed  the  fruit  from  the  trees,  and  broke  the  branches. 
He  sit  down  upon  the  bank.  The  cattle  were  drove  to  pasture.  Af- 
ter he  had  strove  many  times  he  wined  the  prize.  The  bee  stinged 
her  badly.  He  has  took  my  knife.  The  sky  has  wore  a  cloudy  as- 
pect for  several  days.  She  singed  the  song  well.  The  cars  have  ran  off 
the  track.  She  has'  weavcd  the'cloth  beautifully.  Who  teched  him  gram- 
mar ?  These  apples  have  growed  very  fast.  He  clingedto  the  mast.  He 
give  me  some  money.  Anna  stringed  the  beads  quickly.  The  vessel  has 
hove  in  sight.  She  springed  a  leak.  The  stone  smit  him  in  the  face 
The  river  nas  overflown  its  banks. 


DEFECTIVE   VERBS. 

Defective  verbs  are  those  in  which  some  of  the  principal 
parts  are  wanting. 

They  are  may,  can,  shall,  and  will,  which  have  the  past 
tense,  but  no  participles ;  must  and  ought,  which  have  nei- 
ther a  past  tense  nor  participles ;  quoth,  which  has  neither 
a  present  tense  nor  participles. 

Rem.  1.  —  When  must  refers  to  past  time,  it  is  used  in  the  present  per- 
fect tense  ;  as,  "  He  must  have  left."  When  ought  refers  to  past  time,  it 
is  followed  by  the  perfect  infinitive. 

Rem.  2.  —  Qunth  is  now  seldom  used.  Betcare  (beware  or  wary  J  is 
nsed  mostly  in  the  imperative  mode  ;  as,  "  Beware  of  dogs." 

IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 

An  impersonal  verb  is  one  by  which  an  action  or  state  is 
asserted  independently  of  any  particular  subject ;  as,  "  It 
rains."     "  It  snows." 

Rem.  1.  —  Methinks,  methought,  meseems,  meseemed,  may  be  regarded 
as  impersonal,  or  rather  unipersonal  verbs.  They  are  equivalent  to  /  think, 
I  thought,  It  seems,  it  seemed  to  me. 


ETYMOLOGY  —  VERBS.  9T 


MODEL  FOR  PARSING. 

,1.)  Give  the  part  of  speech,  and  tell  why. 

(2.)  Tell  whether  it  is  regular  or  irregular,  and  why. 

(3.)  Give  the  principal  parts. 

(4.)  Tell  whether  it  is  transitive  or  intransitive,  and  why 
(5  )         "      the  voice  and  form,  and  why. 
(6. ;         "      mode,  and  why. 
(7.)         "      tense,  and  why. 

(8.)  Inflect  the  tense. 

(9.)  Tell  the  number  and  person,  and  why. 

(10.)  Give  the  rule. 

Note.  —  If  the  verb  is  in  the  infinitive,  instead  of  giving  the  number, 
person,  and  inflection,  give  the  construction  and  the  rule.  If  the  verb  is 
in  one  of  the  compound  tenses,  analyze  it  according  to  the  model,  (p.  70.) 
If  the  verb  is  defective,  tell  the  parts  tha*  are  used,  and  parse  it  according 
to  the  model.  If  the  form  is  a  participle,  tell  what  kind,  the  verb  from 
which  it  is  derived,  conjugate,  give  the  construction  and  rule.  After  the 
pupil  has  made  some  progress,  the  following  short  form  may  be  adopted :  — 

(1.)  It  is  a  regular  or  irregular,  transitive  or  intransitive  verb,  (if  transi 
tive,)  active  or  passive  form. 
(2.)  Principal  parts. 
(3.)  Mode. 
(4.)  Tense. 

(5.)  Number  and  person. 
(8.^  Construction  and  rule. 


EXAMPLES. 

**  Sarah  has  written  a  letter." 

Sat  written  ...  is  a  verb ;  a  word  which  expresses  being,  action,  or  state ; 
irregular —  it  does  not  form  its  past  tense,  and  past  par- 
ticiple by  adding  ed ;  principal  parts,  (pres.  write,  past 
wrote,  past  part,  written ;)  transitive  —  it  requires  the 
addition  of  an  object  to  complete  its  meaning;  active 
voice  —  it  represents  the  subject  as  acting  ;  common  form 

—  it  represents  an  act  indefinitely,  as  a  custom,  or  as 
completed,  without  reference  to  its  progress  ;  indicative 
mode  —  it  asserts  a  thing  as  actual ;  present  perfect  tense 

—  it  expresses  an  action  completed  in  present  time ;  it 
is  formed  Ly  prefixing  have,  which  denotes  present  time, 
and  is  the  sign  of  completion  to  the  past  paj  ticiple  writ- 
ten, which  denotes  completion  ;  (I  have  written,  ikon  hast 
written,  he  has  written;  we  have  written,  yot  We  writ- 
ten,  they  have  written ;)  third  person  singular  nurnher, 
because  its  subject,  Sarah,  is,  with  which  it  agrees-  ao- 
cording  to  Rule  IV.  "The  verb  muz  t  agree  with  i  to  ub  • 
ject  in  number  and  person." 

"  She  can  play." 

Om  plaj  ■        .   w  a  verb,  (why  ?)  regular,  (why  ? )  principal  pari*,  ( why  ?) 

9 


99  ENGLISH     GRAMMAK. 

intransitive,  (/why?)  common  form,  ("why?)  potciMal 
mode,  (why  ?)'  present  tense,  (-why  ?)  (analyze  and  in- 
ject it,)  first  person,  singular  number,  (why  ?)    Iluie  IV. 

"  America  was  discovered  hy  Columbus.'' 

Wo*  discovered  .  is  a  regular  transitive  verb,  passive  voice  —  or  which  12 
the  same  tiling,  a  regular  passive  verb — the  subjectis  rep- 
resented as  acted  upon  ;  (discover,  discovered,  discovered, J 
indicative  mode,  (why  ?)  past  tense,  (Avhy  ?)  (analyze  and 
inliect  it,)  third  person,  singular  number,  and  agrees  wilh 
its  subject,  America,  according  to  Rule  IV. 

"  I  love  to  see  the  sun  shine." 

To  we is  an  irregular  transitive  verb,  active  voice,  &c,  infini 

Live  mode,  (why  ?)  present  tense,  and  limits  love,  accord- 
ing to  Rule  XVI.  "  The  infinitive  has  the  construc- 
tion of  the  noun  &c." 

"  If  they  were  reading  the  book  " 

Were  reading  .  .  is  an  irregular  transitive  verb,  active  voice,  progressive 
form,  (why?)  subjunctive  mode,  (why?)  &c. 

"  Has  he  come  ? " 

Mas  come  .  ...  is  an  irregular  intransitive  verb,  common  form,  (conju- 
gated interrogatively,)  &c. 


KXiSECI8KS. 

Parse  the  verbs  in  the  foiloicing  examples  :  — 

Will  you  help  me  ?  I  hope  for  better  things.  Blessed  is  the  consoler. 
Have  vou  found' the  paper  ?  I  would  not  have  believed  it.  I  could  not  live 
♦o  see  it.  Do  good  to  aii.  She  had  gone  to  walk.  The  weather  was  un- 
pleasant. Did  you  lose  your  umbrella  ?  I  heard  the  carriage.  If  you 
wish,  I  will  accompany  you.  She  must  learn  her  lesson.  She  hoped  to 
have  gone.     Why  will  you  persist  ?     Reverence  the  aged. 

Add  an  object  and  change  the  following  transitive  verbs  from  the  active  to 
the  passive  voice :  — 

Mary  loved.  They  read.  John  wrote.  I  made.  Henry  lost.  The 
girls  moved.  The  little  boy  hid.  The  children  played.  He  threw.  Anna 
Found.  You  struck.  He  rowed.  Hear.  The  father  punished.  Jane 
broke.  Give  Will  you  lend  ?  They  left.  Thus :  Mary  loved  the  truth 
as  The  truth  was  loved  by  Mary. 

Change  the  following  transitive  verbs  from  the  passive  to  the  active  form, 
*ttd  supply  a  subject  when  it  is  omitted. 

America  was  discovered  in  1492.  Religious  liberty  was  established  in 
Rhode  Island.  The  Magna  Charta  was  granted  to  the  English.  The 
Mexicans  were  defeated  at  Buena  Vista.  The  king  was  concealed  in  the 
tree.  The  retreat  of  the  Greeks  was  conducted  verv  skilfully.  A  great 
battle  was  fought  at  Marathon.  The  gunpowder  plot  was  discovered. 
King  Charles  was  restored  to  the  throne  in  1660.  Paradise  Lost  was  writ 
ten  by  Milton.  The  Messiah  was  written  by  a  distinguished  poet.  The 
apples  were  seen  +.o  fall.  The  book  was  improved  by  the  master.  The 
world  was  created  Thus  :  Christopher  Columbus  discovered  America  in 
1492. 


3TVM0L0GY  —  AfcVETtBS.  i*9 

ADVERBS. 

An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a 

*  *rb,  adjective,  participle,  01  other  adverb  ;  as,  "  He  leams 

quickly" 

Rem.  1.  —  When  an  idea,  however  expressed,  is  put  in  such  relation  to  & 
verb,  an  adjective,  a  participle,  or  an  adverb,  as  to  express  some  circum- 
stance of  place,  time  came,  or  manner,  it  is  adverbial,  because  it  is  placed 
in  an  adverbial  relation  in  the  sentence.  The  same  idea  placed  in  relation 
to  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  of  the  nature  of  an  adjective  ;  as,  "  He  who  acts 
uprightly  is  an  ujyrighi  man." 

Rem.  2.  —  When  nn  adverbial  idea  is  expressed  by  a  single  word,  that 
wi  rd  is  called  an  adverb;  as,  "  He  walks  slowly."  The  relation  is  deter- 
mined either  by  the  termination,  the  position,  or  the  meaning.  "When  the 
idea  is  expressed  by  a  noun,  the  relation  is  expressed  by  a  preposition ;  as, 
"The  affair  was  managed  with  prudence"  =  prudently.  In  this  cape  the 
phrase,  consisting  of  the  preposition  and  noun,  is  said  to  be  adverbial.  When 
the  idea  is  expressed  by  a  proposition,  the  relation  is  expressed  by  a  con- 
junctive adverb.  Here  the  clause,  consisting  of  a  connective,  subject,  and 
predicate,  is  adverbial;  as,  "  Speak  so  that  you  can  be  understood"  =  dis- 
tinctly. 

Rem.  3.  —  Words  properly  called  adverbs  are  abridged  expressions. 
They  take  the  place  of  phrases  consisting  of  a  preposition  and  noun  ;  as 
"He  lived  there  "  =r  in  that  place.  "  He  conducted  wisely  "  =  in  a  wise 
manner. 

Rem.  4.  —  Sometimes  an  adverb  seems  to  qualify  a  noun,  and  thereby 
tc  partake  of  the  nature  of  an  adjective  ;  as,  "  I  found  the  boy  only." 

Rem.  5.  —  Sometimes  an  adverb  modifies  a  phrase,  or  an  entire  proposi- 
tion ;  as,  "  Far  from  home."    "  The  old  man  likewise  came  to  the  city." 


EXERCISES. 

Point  out  the  adverbs  in  the  following  sentences  :  — 

She  sang  sweetlv.  The  wind  moaned  mournfully  over  her  grave.  O, 
lightly,  lightly  tread.  Come  to  me  quickly.  The  storm  raged  fearfully. 
When  shall  I  see  you  again  ?  They  lived  very  happily.  They  were  agree- 
ably disappointed.  Ho  you  expect" them  to-morrow  ?  She  is  continually 
changing  her  mind.  I  saw  him  frequently.  Mary  is  always  happy.  I 
found  the  book  there.  She  performs  her'  duty  faithfully.  It  cannot  be 
true.     Perhaps  I  shall  go.     Doubtless  it  is  true.     George  writes  elegantly. 

Insert  the folloioing  adverbs  in  sentences  cfyour  own:  — 
Where,  hopefully,  soon,  bravely,  yes,  surely,  undeniably,  sorrowfully, 
briefly,  quite,  exceedingly,  emphatically,  below,  above,   ever,  constantly, 
so,  yet,  although,  no,  verily,  tediously,  trustingly,  patiently,  yesterday 
thcrefoie,  nearly,  charmingly,  lovingly,  brightly,  never,  heroically. 

Correct  the  following  exfrressions  in  all  respects  :  — 

Tell  Mar/  to  come  quick.  That  looks  good.  The  flower  smells  sweet. 
He  ketchtd  cold  a  going:  out.  The  wind  blowed  dreadful.  He  teached  me 
as  good  as  he  coula .    The  little  bov  was  drownded.     They  did  the  sura 


iOO  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

right.  She  hadnt  ought  to  tell.  I  don't  believe  a  word  ont.  Have  you 
come  near  a  mile?  Taint  true.  Doesnt  she  look  charming  ?  Aint  she 
handsome.  Mary  drawed  a  pictcr  beautiful.  Let  each  one  do  all  they  can. 
My  feet's  cold.  I  have  got  a  new  book  aint  you  glad.  Im  e'en  a'  most 
melted.    Set  right  down  here. 


CLASSES   OF  ADVERBS. 

Adverbs  may  be  divided  into  four  general  classes  —  ad- 
verbs of  place,  of  time,  of  cause,  of  manner. 

(1.)  Adverbs  of  place  answer  the  q\iestions  Where  ?  Whither?  Whence? 
as.  here,  there,  above,  yonder,  below,  sotneichere,  back,  upwards,  down- 
wards,  &c. 

(2.)  Adverbs  of  time  answer  the  questions  When?  How  long  ?  Hot? 
often  ?  as,  then,  yesterday,  always,  continually,  often,  frequently,  &c. 

(3.)  Adverbs  of  cause  answer  the  questions  Why?  Wherefore?  as, 
why,  wherefore,  therefore,  then. 

Note.  —  Causal  relations  are  commonly  expressed  by  phrases  and  clauses. 

(4.)  Adverbs  of  manner  and  degree  answer  the  question  How  ?  as,  ele- 
gantly, faithfully,  fairly,  &c.  They  are  generally  derived  from  adjectives 
denoting  quality. 

Note.  —  Under  the  head  of  degree  may  be  classed  those  which  answer 
the  question  How  ?  in  respect  to  quantity  or  quality,  as,  How  much  f 
•How  good  1  &c. ;  as,  too,  very,  greatly,  chiefly,  perfectly,  mainly,  wholly,  to- 
tally, quite,  exceedingly. 

Rem.  1.  — Modal  adverbs,  or  those  which  show  the  manner  of  the  asser 
Hon,  belong  to  this  class  also.  The  following  are  the  principal  modal  ad 
verbs :  yes,  yea,  verily,  truly,  surely,  undoubtedly,  doubtless,  forsooth,  cer- 
tainly;  no,  nay,  not,  possibly ,  probably ,  perhaps,  peradventure,  perchance. 

Rem.  2.  —  The  adverbs  tchen,  where,  why,  how,  &c,  when  used  in  ask- 
ing questions,  are  called  interrogative  adverbs ;  as,  "  When  did  he  come  ?  " 

Rem.  3.  —  Adverbs  of  manner  are  generally  formed  from  adjectives  by 
adding  ly ;  as,  bright,  bright-Zy ;  smooth,  smooth-^/.  But  when  the  adjec- 
tive ends  in  ly,  the  phrase  is  commonly  used;  as,  "in  a  lovely  manner," 
instead  of  lovelily. 

Rem.  4.  —  There  is  used  as  an  expletive  to  introduce  a  sentence  when 
the  verb  to  be  denotes  existence  ;  as,  "  There  are  many  men  of  the  same 
opinion."  It  is  also  sometimes  used  with  the  verbs  seem,  appear,  come, 
go,  and  others  ;  as,  "  There  went  out  a  decree  from  Caesar  Augustus."  In 
this  use  it  has  no  meaning. 

Rem.  5.  —  The  adverb  so  is  often  used  as  a  substitute  for  some  preceding 
word  or  group  of  words ;  as,  "  He  is  in  good  business,  and  is  likely  to  re- 
main so." 

EXERCISE. 

Tell  the  class  of  the  following  adverbs  :  — 

Very,  greafiy,  perhaps,  therefore,  below,  to-morrow,  when,  there,  pure 
hr.  truly,  always,  continually,  yesterday  why,  sorrowfully,  painfully ;, 
above,  here,  vainly,  exceedingly. 


ETYMOLOGY —  ADVERBS.  10 1 

CONJUNCTIVE  ADVERBS. 

Conjunctive  adverbs  are  those  which  give  to  a  dependent 
clause  an  adverbial  relation,  and  connect  it  with  the  verb, 
adjective,  or  adverb,  which  it  modifies  ;  as,  "  I  shall  meet  my 
friend  when  the  boat  arrives." 

Rem.  1. — The  principal  conjunctive  adverbs  will  be  founa  unaer  lh« 
head  of  connectives.  (See  p.  106.)  They  are  equivalent  to  two  phrases,  the 
one  containing  a  relative  pronoun,  the  other  its  antecedent ;  as,  "  Vhe 
lilies  grow  where  the  ground  is  moist  "  =  The  lilies  grow  m  that  place  in 
which  the  ground  is  moist.  Here  the  phrase  in  that  place  modifies  grows, 
an  1  the  phrase  in  which  modiiies  moist;  hence  where,  the  equivalent  of 
the  two,  modifies  both. 

Rem.  2.  —  The  words  therefore,  wherefore,  hence,  ivhence,  consequently, 
then,  now,  besides,  likewise,  also,  too,  moreover,  and  some  others,  are  ad- 
verbs, and  at  the  same  time  are  used  —  either  alone  or  when  associated  with 
other  connectives,  to  join  propositions.  But  unlike  conjunctive  adverbs, 
they  connect  coordinate  and  not  subordinate  clauses. 

EXERCISE. 

Point  out  the  conjunctive  adverbs  in  the  following  examples :  — 

He  will  be  prepared  when  the  time  arrives.     Where  I  go,  you  shall  go 

f>he  may  return  whenever  she  wishes.     He  disobeyed  the  rule,  although 

he  knew  it  was  wrong.     Whither  I  go  ye  cannot  come.     He  came  as  boob 

f.s  his  engagements  would  permit.     1  will  go  because  she  wishes  to  sec  me. 


COMPARISON   OF  ADVERBS. 

Many  adverbs,  especially  those  denoting  manner,  admit 
i  (  comparison  :  as,  brightly,  mor.e  brightly,  most  brightly ; 
iwn,  sooner,  soonest. 

Rem.  1.  —  When  an  adjective  undergoes  comparison,  it  shows  that  two  or 
n  ore  objects  are  compared  ;  but  when  an  adverb  undergoes  the  same  change, 
It  show's  that  two  or  more  actions  or  qualities  are  compared ;  as,  "  James 
Vj.  eaks  more  fluently  than  George  "  [speaks.] 

Rem.  2.  —  The  following  adverbs  arc  compared  irregularly:  III  or  badly, 
h  me,  worst;  little,  less,  least ;  far, farther,  farthest;  much,  more,  most; 
tc  ill,  better,  best. 


EXERCISES. 


Compare  the  following  adverbs 
Coolly, 
oi  Qsively 


Coolly,  noiselessly,  famously,  soon,  near,  little,  well,  much,  joyfully 
ly 


T..11  the  degree  oj  comparison  of  the  /"Hawing  :  — 

.   earnestly*   nearer,  soonest,  brightly,  most,  worst,  comparatively, 
most  plentifully. 

9* 


102  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

PARSING. 

To  parse  an  adverb,  tell,  — 

(1.)  What  part  of  speech  it  is,  and  why. 

(2.)  Compare  it,  (where  it  admits  of  it.)  and  tell  what  degre*. 

(3.)  Tell  what  it  modifies. 

(4.)  Give  the  rule. 

MODEL. 

".The  sun  shines  brightly." 

Brightly  .  .  .  is  an  adverb  ;  it  modifies  the  meaning  of  the  verb  ;  it  it 
compared  (positive  brightly,  comparative  more  brightly,  su- 
perlative most  brightly ;)  it  is  in  the  positive  degree ;  it  modi- 
fies the  verb  shines,  according  to  Rule  IX.     (Repeat  it.) 

"  Mary  writes  more  elegantly  than  her  brother." 

More  elegantly  .  is  an  adverb;  it  modifies  the  meaning  of  the  verb;  it  is 
compared,  (elegantly,  more  elegantly,  most  elegantly ;)  it  is 
in  the  comparative  degree;  it  modifies  the  verb  writes, 
according  to  Rule  IX.     (Repeat  it.) 

"  I  will  go  whenever  you  wish." 

Whenever  ....  is  a  conjunctive  adverb,  because  it  gives  to  the  dependent 
clause  an  adverbial  relation,  and  connects  it  with  the  verb 
will  go  ;  it  modifies  both  will  go  and  wish,  according  to 
Rule  IX. 


PREPOSITIONS. 

Note.  —  For  an  oral  exercise,  see  Introduction. 

A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  show  the  relation  of  a 
noun  or  pronoun  to  some  other  word ;  as,  "  The  ship  was 
seen  from  the  citadel."  "  He  sailed  upon  the  ocean  in  a  ship 
q/*\var." 

Rem.  1. — The-preposition  always  shows  a  relation  between  two  terms, 
an  antecedent  and  a  subsequent.  The  subsequent  term  is  called  the  object 
•f  the  preposition.  The  preposition  and  object  united  form  a  dependei; 
element  of  the  sentence  having  the  antecedent  term  as  its  principal. 

Rkm.  2. — The  preposition  always  shows  a  relation  of  dependence. 
When  •?  e  antecedent  term  is  a  noun,  the  dependent  phrase  is  of  the  nature 
of  an  aijective ;  as,  "  The  rays  of  the  sun  "  =  solar  rays. 

When  the  antecedent  term  is  a  verb,  participle,  adjective,  or  adverb,  the 
dependent  phrase  is  of  the  nature  of  an  adverb,  (sometimes  an  i. 
object;)  as,  "  The  case  was  conducted  toith  skill" —skilfully. 

Rem.  3.  —  The  object  of  the  preposition  is  not  always  a  single  word  :  i1 
•nay  be  a.  phrase  or  clause ;  as,  "  The  city  was  about  to  capitulate  wfc 
poleon  arrived."     "  Much  will  depend  on  who  tlie  commissioners  are.  ' 


ETYMOLOGY  —  PREPOSITIONS. 


103 


Rem.  4.  —  Tlie  preposition  is  sometimes  placed  .after  its  object;    as, 
While  its  song,  sublime  as  thunder,  rolls  the  woods  along."      The  prep- 

•sition  and  object  sometimes  precede  the  word  on  which  they  depend  ;  as 

'  Of  sill  patriots,  Washington  was  the  noblest." 


The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  prepositions  in  xcse :  — 

aboard, 

before, 

for, 

through, 

about, 

behind, 

from, 

throughout, 

above, 

below, 

in,  into, 

till, 

according  to, 

beneath, 

'mid, 

to, 

across, 

beside  or 

'midst, 

touching, 

after, 

besides, 

notwithstanding, 

toward  or 

against, 

between, 

of, 

towards, 

along, 

betwixt, 

for, 

under, 

amid  or 

beyond, 

on, 

underneath, 

amidst, 

by, 

out  of, 

until, 

among  ot 

concerning, 

over, 

unto, 

amongst, 

down, 

past, 

up, 

around, 

during, 

regarding, 

upon, 

with, 

at, 

ere, 

respecting, 

athwart, 

except, 

round, 

within, 

bating, 

excepting, 

since, 

without. 

Rem.  1.  —  According  to,  as  to  as  for,  out  of,  instead  of,  because  of,  off 
from,  over  against,  round  about  from  among,  from  between,  from  around, 
from  before,  and  the  like,  may  be  regarded  as  complex  prepositions,  and 
parsed  as  a  single  word ;  or  the  first  word  of  the  phrase  may  be  parsed  as 
an  adverb.  According,  contrary,  in  the  phrases  according  to,  contrary  to, 
are  sometimes  regarded  as  participles  or  adjectives  modifying  some  noun 
iii  the  sentence. 

Rem.  2.  — In  such  connections  as  the  following,  put  in,  go  itp,  go  down, 
cut  through,  pass  by,  climb  up,  and  the  like,  the  preposition  may  be  parsed 
as  an  adverb  when  it  is  not  followed  by  an  object ;  also  the  Italicized  words 
in  such  sentences  as  the  following :  "  The  captain  stood  in  for  the  shore." 
"  They  rode  by  in  haste." 

R-em.  3.  —  Some  words,  most  commonly  prepositions,  are  occasionally 
used  as  adverbs ;  these  are,  before,  after,  till,  until,  above,  beneath,  for,  on, 
in.  X:c.  So  also  some  words  commonly  employed  as  adverbs  are  some- 
times used  as  prepositions  ;  as,  bid,  save,  despite,  &c.  Off  is  usually  an 
adverb,  but  may  be  parsed  as  a  preposition  when  followed  by  an  object. 
Instead,  is  either  a  preposition,  or  equivalent  to  a  preposition  and  noun  = 
in  stead. 

Rem.  4.  —  In  such  expressions,  as,  a  hunting,  a  fishing,  and  the  like,  if 
authorized  at  all,  the  a  may  be  regarded  as  itself  a  preposition,  or  a  con- 
traction of  at,  in,  or  on. 


PARSING. 

To  parse  a  preposition,  tell,  — 

(1.)  What  part  of  speech,  and  why. 

(2.)  Between  what  words  it  shows  the  relation. 

(3.)  Give  the  rule. 


Froi 


"  He  went  from-  England  to  France." 
s  a  preposition ;  it  is  used  to  show  the  relation  between  a  noun  o» 


104  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

pronoun  and  some  other  word ;   it  shows  the  relation  Detween 
the  noun  England  and  the  verb  went,  according  to  Rule  XIII. 
(Repeat  it.) 
To  .  .  .  is  a  preposition  ;  it  shows  the  relation  between  the  noun  France 
and  the  verb  went,  according  to  Rule  XIII. 

Point  out  the  prepositions  in  the  following  sentences,  and  tell  between  what 
words  they  show  the  relation. 

He  heard  the  birds  sing  in  the  morning.  The  buds  are  swelling  m  the 
sun's  warm  rays.  The  winds  will  come  from  the  distant  south.  The  bees 
gather  honey  from  the  flowers.  I  bring  fresh  showers  for  the  thirsty  flow- 
ers from  sea  and  stream.  I  shall  be  Queen  of  the  May.  In  the  garden  the 
crocus  blooms.  The  hills  are  covered  with  a  carpet' of  green.  We  shall 
have  pleasant  walks  with  our  friends.  We  shall  seek  the  early  fruits  in 
the  sunny  valley. 

Make  use  of  the  following  prepositions  in  sentences  of  your  own; — 
Under,  above,  on,  before,  behind,  from,  beneath,  by,  except,  during, 

around,  through,     ?er,  past,  without,  within,  till,  towards,  according  to, 

beyond,  across,  in,  ap,  with,  notwithstanding. 

Correct  the  following  expression;;  in  oil  rcsjiects  :  — 

The  ship  lays  in  the  harbor.  They  sung  very  good.  She  laid  down. 
Will  you  shut  up  the  winder  ?  I  have  took  that  book  from  its  place.  They 
spended  all  then  money.  He  begun  his  work.  The  wasp  stinged  him. 
He  knowed  it  wasnt  true.  Somebody  lias  stole  my  pen.  Her  shoes  are 
wore  out.  The  sun  has  rose.  The  trees  growed  fast.  She  throwed  the 
ball  jist  so  high  as  she  could.  He  set  down.  He  has  went  away  afore  I 
come.  Ive  beam  tell.  They  come  right  home.  A  dog  drawed  the  wagon. 
The  books  are  tore  bad.     She  had  fell  down,  and  hurted  herself. 

How  many  instances  of  incorrect  expressions  have  you  noticed  to-day  * 


CONJUNCTIONS. 

Note.  —  For  oral  exercise,  see  Introduction. 

A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  sentences,  or  the 
parts  of  sentences  ;  as.  "  The  horse  fell  over  the  precipice, 
but  the  rider  escaped."  "  The  horse  and  rider  fell  over  the 
precipice." 

In  the  first  example,  but  connects  tw«  sentences;  in  the  second,  and  connects  the 
two  parts,  horse  and  rider. 

Rem.  1.  —  A  pure  conjunction  forms  no  part  of  the  material  or  sub- 
stance of  a  sentence  ;  its  office  is  simply  to  unite  the  materials  into  a  sin- 
gle structure. 

Rem.  2.  —  Besides  pure  conjunctions,  there  is  a  large  class  of  word? 
which  enter  into  the  sentence  as  a  part  of  its  substance,  and  at  the  same 
time  connect  different  elements  or  parts;  as,  "  This  is  the  pencil  -Inch  I 
lost."  Here  Wuc/t  is  the  obje  t  of  lost,  and  at  the  same  time  connects  the 
dependent  clause,  which  I  lost  to  pencil.  All  such  words  are  e&llod  con> 
iiectives  or  conjunctive  words. 


ETYMOLOGY CONJUNCTIONS.  105 

CLASSES   OE   CONNECTIVES. 

All  connectives  (whether  pure  conjunctions  ?r  conjunc- 
tive words)  are  divided  into  two  classes  —  coordinate  and 
subordinate.  Coordinate  connectives  are  those  which  join 
similar  or  homogeneous  elements  ;  as,  "  John  and  James 
were  disciples." 

Here  John  and  James  are  similar  in  construction,  and  have  a  common  relation  to 
tiie  predicate. 

Hem.  1. — Two  elements  are  coordinate,  and  consequently  demand  a 
coordinate  conjunction,  when  they  are  placed  in  the  same  relation  or  rank  ; 
as,  "  The  insects  devoured  leaves  and  blossoms."  Here  leaves  is  dependent 
on  devoured ;  blossoms  also  is  not  only  dependent,  but  has  precisely  the 
same  sort  of  dependence  as  leaves ;  hence'  they  are  coordinate  with  each 
other.  In  the  sentence,  "  The  insects  devoured  the  leaves  greedily,"  leaves 
and  greedily  are  both  dependent  on  devoured,  but  they  have  by  no  means 
the  same  dependence ;  hence  they  are  not  coordinate,  and  cannot  be  con- 
nected by  and,  or  any  other  coordinate  conjunction. 

Coordinate  connectives  are  always  conjunctions,  and  may 
be  divided  into  three  classes  —  copulative,  adversative,  and 
alternative. 

Copulative  conjunctions  are  those  which  add  parts  in  har- 
mony with  each  other;  as,  "The  day  dawned,  and  our 
friends  departed." 

The  cop  llative  conjunctions  are,  — 

(1.)  And,  a  connective  of  the  most  general  character,  placing  the  con- 
nected parts  in  a  relation  of  perfect  equality,  without  modification  or  em- 
phasis. 

(2.)  So,  also,  likewise,  too,  besides,  moreover,  furthermore,  now,  hence, 
whence,  therefore,  wherefore,  consequently,  even,  connectives  associated 
with  and  expressed  or  understood,  and  used  to  give  emphasis,  or  some 
additional  idea  ;  as,  "  She  sings  ;  [and]  besides  she  plays  beautifully." 

(3.)  Not  only  .  .  .  but,  but  also,  but  likewise,  as  well  .  .  .  as,  both  .  .  . 
and,  first  .  .  .  secondly,  thirdly,  &c. ;  connectives  employed  when  we  wish 
not  only  to  make  the  second  part  emphatic,  but  to  awaken  an  expectation 
of  some  addition.  As  these  parts  correspond  to  each  other,  these  connee 
tives  are  called  correlatives. 

Adversative  conjunctions  are  those  which  unite  parts  in 
opposition  to,  or  in  contrast  with,  each  other  ;  as,  "  The  fish 
was  brought  to  the  shore,  but  plunged  into  the  water  again." 

Rem. — Adversative  conjunctions  are  employed,  (1.)  "When  the  second 
part  is  placed  in  opposition  to  the  first;  as,  '"'It  doe*  not  rain,  but  it 
•nows."    (2.)  When  the  second  partis  placed  in  opposition  to  a  suppose*1 


106  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

inference  from  the  first ;  as,  "  The  army  was  victorious,  but  the  general  was 
slain.  Here,  lest  the  inference  should  be  that  all  was  prosperous,  the  sec- 
ond clause  with  but  is  added. 

The  adversative  conjunctions  are,  — 

(1.)  But,  which  simply  shows  opposition  without  emphasis  ;  as,  "  I  shall 
go,  hut  I  shall  not  walk." 

(2.)  Yet,  still,  nevertheless,  notwithstanding,  however  t  now,  and  some  olii 
rrs,  which  are  associated  with  but,  either  expressed  or  understood,  and  give 
emphasis  or  some  additional  idea  ;  as,  "  The  delinquent  has  been  repeated- 
ly admonished,  (but)  still  he  is  as  negligent  as  ever." 

Alternative  conjunctions  are  those  which  offer  or  deny  a 
choice  between  two  things  ;  as,  "  We  must  fight,  or  our  lib- 
erties will  be  lost."     "  She  can  neither  sing  nor  play." 

The  alternative  conjunctions  are,  — 

(1.)  Or,  which  offers,  and  nor,  {not  or,)  which  denies  a  choice. 
(2.)  Else,  otherwise,  associated  with  or  for  the  sake  of  emphasis. 
(3.)  Either  and  neither,  correlatives  of  or  and  nor. 

Note.  —  Parts  standing  in  a  causal  relation  to  each  other  are  some- 
times coordinate ;  but  usually  there  are,  in  such  cases,  two  connectives, 
one  expressed  and  the  other  understood;  as,  "The  south  wind  blows, 
[and]  therefore,  there  must  be  rain." 

Subordinate  connectives  are  those  which  join  dissimilar  or 
heterogeneous  elements;  as,  "I  shall  go  when  the  stage 
arrives." 

Here  when  joins  the  subordinate  clause,  when  the  stage  arrives,  to  tie  verb  shall  go 
It  is  a  part  of  the  clause  itself,  being  equivalent  to  at  the  time  in  which.  Hence  it  should 
be  introduced  in  naming  the  clause  ;  but  not  so  with  the  pure  coordinate  conjunctions. 

Rem.  1.  —  The  second  element  is  always  a  proposition  ;  it  is  subordinate, 
and  consequently  demands  a  subordinate  connective,  because  it  becomes 
merely  a  limiting  expression  of  the  antecedent  term  on  which  it  depends. 
It  is  unlike  the  part  with  which  it  is  connected  in  its  form,  in  its  relation  or 
rank,  and  in  its  grammatical  character. 

ItSM.  2.  —  A  subordinate  connective,  like  a  preposition,  always  shows  a 
relation  of  dependence.  But  the  second  term  is  a  proposition,  instead  of  a 
noun  or  pronoun. 

Subordinate  connectives  are  divided  into  three  classes  — 
ihose  which  connect  substantive  clauses,  those  which  con- 
nect adjective  clauses,  and  those  which  connect  adverbial 

clauses. 

(1.)  Substantive  clauses  containing  a  statement  are  connected  by  the 
conjunctions  that,  that  not,  and  sometimes  but,  but  that.  Substantive 
clauses  containing  an  inquiry  are  connected  by  the  interrogatives  who 
which,  tohat,  where,  whither,  whence,  when,  how  long,  how  often,  tchy 
wnertfore-  how 


n. 


ETYMOLOGY CONJUNCT    ONS.  '.0  i 

(2.)  Adjective  clauses  are  connected  by  the  relative  pronouns  who, 
which,  what,  that,  whoever,  xohosoever,  whichever,  whichsoever,  whatever, 
whatsoever,  and  sometimes  the  relative  adverbs  why,  when,  where. 

(3.)  Adverbial  clauses  are  connected  by  the  conjunctive  adverbs  where, 
whither,  whence,  wherever,  whithersoever,  as  far  as,  as  long  as,  farther  thin, 
which  denote  PLACE;  ichen,  ivhile,  whilst,  as,  before,  after,  ere,  till,  until 
since, whenever,  as  long  as,  as  soon  as,  the  moment,  tfie  instant,  as  frequently  as, 
us  often  as,  which  denote  TIME;  or  the  conjunctions  because,  for,  as,  where- 
as, since,  inasmuch,  (causal,)  if,  unless,  though,  lest,  except,  provided,  pro 
nitled  that,  (conditional,)  that,  that  not,  lest,  (final,)  though,  although , 
notwithstanding,  however,  whatever,  whoever,  ichichever,  while,  with  the 
correlatives  yet,  still,  nevertheless,  (adversative,)  which  denote  CAUSAL  re- 
I'd  ions;  as,  just  as,  so  ...  as,  same  .  .  .  as,  (correspondence,)  so  .  .  . 
that,  stick  .  .  .  that,  (consequence,)  as  .  .  .  as,  (comparison  of  equality,) 
the  .  .  .  the,  the  .  .  .  so  much  the,  (proportionate  equality,)  than,  ?nore 
than,  less  than,  (comparison  of  inequality,)  whim  denote  MANNER. 


PARSING. 

In  parsing  a  conjunction  or  connective,  tell,  — 

(1.)  What  part  of  speech,  and  why. 
(2.)  To  what  class  it  belongs. 
(3.)  What  elements  it  connects. 
(4.)  Give  the  rule. 

M  Socrates  and  Plato  were  distinguished  philosophers." 

And  ...  is  a  conjunction  ;  it  is  used  to  connect  sentences,  or  the  parts  of 
sentences ;  coordinate,  because  it  connects  similar  elements ; 
it  connects  Socrates  and  Plato,  according  to  Rule  XI.  (Re- 
peat it.) 


"  Wisdom  is  better  than  riches." 

.  .  is  a  conjunction,  (why  ?)  subordinate,  because  it  connects  dissimi- 
lar elements  ;  it  connects  the  proposition  than  riches  (are)  with 
better,  according  to  Rule  XV.      (Repeat  it.) 


"  We  must  either  obey  or  be  punished." 

Either  .  is  a  coordinate  conjunction,  (alternative,)  used  to  awaken  expec- 
tation of  an  additional  element,  and  also  to  introduce  it  with 
emphasis. 

(>*  .  .  .  .  is  a  coordinate  conjunction,  (alternative,)  and  with  its  correlative 
either  is  used  to  connect  the  element  be  punished  with  must 
obey.    Rule  XI.     (Repeat  it.) 

"  Though  he  slay  me,  yet  -will  I  trust  in  him." 

though  .  is  a  subordi?iate  conjunction,  (adversative,)  used  to  awaken  ex- 
pectation of  an  additional  idea.. 

Yet  ...  is  a  subordinate  conjunction,  (adversative,)  and  with  its  correla 
tive  thouqh  is  used  to  connect  the  subordinate  clause,  "  he  slay 
me,"  with  the  principal  one,  "  will  I  trust  in  him,"  according 
to  Rule  XV. 


108  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR 


EXERCISES. 


Point  out  the  conjunctions  in  the  following  examples :  — 
The  moon  and  stars  are  shining.     David  or  his  sister  will  come.    Tht 
king  and  queen  were  on  a  journey.     He  neither  went  himself  nor  allowed 
his  friends  to  go.    Let  us  go  and  play.    Come  with  us,  and  we  will  do  you 
good. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  connectives  are  coordinate,  and  which  are  sub' 
ordinate  : — 

The  pen  and  ink  are  poor.  The  horse  and  the  rider  were  plunged  into 
the  water.  If  ycu  come,  I  shall  have  the  work  in  readiness.  When  the 
million  applaud,  seriously  ask  yourself  what  harm  you  have  done.  He 
knew  that  he  had  disobeyed  instructions.  That  which  cannot  be  cured 
must  be  endured.    Take  heed  lest  ye  fall. 

Parse  the  connectives  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

I  have  found  a  knife  and  fork.  I  was  eyes  to  the  blind,  and  feet  was  I 
to  the  lame.  He  can  neither  stand  nor  walk.  They  stopped  where  night 
overtook  them.  Truth  is  powerful,  and  will  prevail.  If  you  have  nothing 
to  say,  say  nothing. 

Write  appropriate  connectives  in  place  of  the  dashes  in  the  following  :  — 
it  should  rain,  I  shall  not  go.    the  cat  is  away,  the  mice 


will  play.     Samuel his  brother  came  to  town.    We  learn  to  read 

write. 


INTERJECTION. 

An  interjection  is  a  word  used  to  express  some  strong  or 
sudden  emotion  of  the  mind.  "  Alas  !  I  then  have  chid 
away  my  friend." 

Rem.  1.  — As  the  interjection  is  not  the  sign  of  a  thought,  but  merely 
an  expression  of  emotion,  it  cannot  have  any  definable  signification,  or 
grammatical  construction ;  but  as  it  is  of  frequent  use  in  colloquial  and 
impassioned  discourse,  it  should  not  be  omitted  in  parsing. 

Note.  — Interjection  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word  interfectus=  thrown 
between. 

Rem.  2.  —  The  most  common  interjections  are,  hey,  hurrah,  huzza,  ex- 
pressing joy  or  exultation ;  aha,  hah,  ah,  expressing  surprise ;  ho,  lo,  halho% 
hem,  calling  attention  ;  fie,  pshaio,  pugh,  tush,  fon,  expressing  aversion  or 
contempt ;  alas,  woe,  alack,  O,  expressing  sorrow,  grief,  or  compassion ; 
hist,  hush,  mum,  expressing  a  wish  for  silence ;  heigh-ho,  heigh-fto-hum, 
expressing  languor ;  ha,  ha,  he,  he,  expressing  laughter. 

Rem.  3.  —  Some  words  used  as  interjections  should  be  parsed  as  verbs, 
nouns,  or  adjectives  ;  as  in  the  sentence  "Strange!  cried  I."  Strange  is 
an  adjective,  and  the  expression  is  equivalent  to  "  it  is  strange ;  "  and  iit 
the  sentence,  "  Behold !  how  well  he  bears  misfortune's  frowns  !  "  behold 
Is  a  verb  in  the  imperrsave,  equivalent  to  behold  ye. 


ETYMOLOGY 


INTERJECTION.  109 


PARSING. 

To  parse  an  interjection,  tell,  — 

(1.)  What  part  of  speech,  and  why  ? 
(2.)  Give  the  rule. 

"  O,  lightly,  lightly  tread." 

0  .  .  is  in  interjection ;  it  is  used  to  express  some  strong  or  sudden  emo- 
tion of  the  mind ;  it  has  no  grammatical  connection  wi£n  any  othec 
word.    Rule  X. 

EXERCISE. 

Point  out  and  parse  the  interjections  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

O,  I  shall  love  the  sea  "because  it  is  his  grave.  Hark  !  they  whisper,  an 
gels  say,  "  Sister  spirit !  come  away  !  "  He  died,  alas !  in  early  youth 
Long  live  Lord  Robin  !  huzza !  huzza ! 


GENERAL    EXERCISES. 

ALL    THE    PARTS    OF   SPEECH. 

Parse  the  words  in  the  folloicing  examples  :  — 

The  wedding  will  take  place  to-morrow.  The  school  was  dismissed  at 
five  o'clock.  Every  tndeavor  to  do  right  brings  its  own  reward.  They 
heard  the  music  of  the  band.  Ask  them  to  come  and  spend  the  evening 
with  us.  The  hero  of  a  hundred  battles  is  no  more.  He  must  study,  for 
without  attention  he  cannot  improve.  O,  why  did  you  deceive  me  ?  The 
hour  of  retribution  has  at  length  arrived.  Could  he  do  this,  and  I  remain 
silent  ?  He  sacrificed  every  thing  he  had  in  this  world  :  what  could  we  ask 
more? 

If  he  confessed  it,  then  forgive  him.  The  effect  of  this  devotion  of  ele- 
gant minds  to  rural  occupations  has  been  wonderful  on  the  face  of  the 
country.  The  low  of  herds  blends  with  the  rustling  of  the  heavy  grain. 
The  Creator  of  all  things  is  infinitely  good. 

On  the  sad  evening  before  the  death  of  the  noble  youth,  I  was  with  him. 
The  ship  leaps,  as  it  were,  madly  from  billow  to  billow.  Man,  we  believe 
never  loses  the  sentiment  of  his  true  good.  How  different  would  have 
beon  our  lot  this  day,  both  as  men  and  citizens,  had  the  revolution  failed 
of  success  !  He  that  loveth  not  his  brother,  whom  he  hath  seen,  how  can 
he  love  God,  whom  he  hath  not  seen  ?  We  one  day  descried  some  shape- 
less object  drifting  at  a  distance.  The  most  exalted  virtue  is  often  de- 
spised. 

They  resided  for  along  tira  ?  in  Italy.  The  nightingale  sings  most  anect- 
ly  when  it  sings  in  the  nigh  *    Think  on  me,  when  it  shall  Is  well  *jtk 

10 


110  ENGMSH     GRAMMAR. 


SYNTAX 


ORAL    EXERCISE. 

When  [  have  a  single  idea  in  my  mind,  as  that  of  a  lamb,  how  rnani 
wuris  do  I  use  to  express  it  ?  Ans.  One.  But  if  I  have  an  idea  of  a  lamb 
and  also  an  idea  of  its  playing,  how  many  ideas  have  I  ?  Ans.  Two.  Hon 
many  words  must  I  now  use  ?  Ans.  Too,  lamb  and  playing.  But  when  1 
think  of  tite  lamb  and  the  playing,  I  think  of  them  both  together.  I  can 
not  see  the  playing  without  seeing  the  lamb.  How  can  I  show  that  they 
are  both  united  ?  Ans.  By  uniting  the  words  a  playing  lamb.  But  when 
1  wish  to  tell  you,  or  say  to  you  what  the  lamb  does,  and  not  to  express  what 
kind  of  a  lamb  I  see,  what  should  1  then  say  ?  Ans.  The  lamb  plays. 
Then,  in  either  case,  I  must  put  the  words  together.  What  is  this  nutting 
words  together  called  ?     Ans.  Syntax  =  putting  together.     Now,  when  we 

5mt  two  words  together  so  that  one  merely  describes  the  other,  as,  blooming 
ily,  we  show  that  the  ideas  are  connected ;  also  when  we  put  them  together 
so  as  to  tell  or  declare  what  we  think  or  judge,  as,  "  The  lily  blooms,"  we 
show  a  connection  ;  but  what  else  do  we  express  ?  Ans.  A  thought  or  judg- 
ment. Now  sentence  (sententia  =  thought)  means  a  thought;  what,  then, 
shall  we  call  such  expressions  as  dogs  bark,  trees  grow,  jknoers  fade? 
Ans.  Sentences.  Which  of  the  following  are  sentences,  and  which  are 
not  ?  —  Flowing  water,  water  flows  ;  melting  ice,  ice  melts  ;  falling  rain, 
rain  falls  ;  the  fierce  dog,  the  dog  is  fierce  ;  the  white  sheep,  the  sheep  is 
white. 

Syntax  treats  of  the  construction  of  sentences. 

A  sentence  is  a  thought  expressed  in  words  ;  as,  "  The 
winds  blow."     "  The  snow  melts." 

To  understand  a  sentence  we  must  attend  to  its  construc- 
tion, its  analysis,  and  the  principles  or  rules  by  which  its 
parts  are  combined. 


I.    CONSTRUCTION—  Sentence-making.* 

Every  sentence  must  have  a  subject  and  a  predicate ;  as, 
Trees  (sub.)  grow  (pred.) 

As  every  structure  must  have  a  foundation,  so  every  sentence  must  htrs 
%  subject,  (subjectus  =  thrown  under  as   a  foundation,)  or  something  of 


*  To  the  Teacher.  —  The  object  of  the  teacher  in  this  important  department  of 
syntax  should  he  to  draw  the  attention  of  the  pupil  to  the  parts  of  a  sentence  ;i>  t  ley 
cluster  around  the  Btibject  and  predicate.  Although  it  implies  a  species  of  ai 
to  be  able  to  point  out  the  parts  as  in  the  exercises  under  "  ("(instruction,"  yet  the  spe- 
cific rules  and  models  for  analyzing  are  placed,  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  in  a  sepa- 
rate division.  The  following  examples  are  classified  according  to  certain  peculiarities, 
«hich  will,  in  the  pupil's  progress,  become  obvious  ;  but  at  first  it  will  be  best  for 
tue  teacher  to  be  guided  by  the  order  of  thought,  regardless  of  the  forms  of  evm 


SYNTAX WORDS  —  SUB.  AND  PRED.  UNMODIFIED.      1 1  1 

which  we  speak  Again :  as  a  foundation  is  not  a  complete  building,  so  a 
Bubject  alone  does  not  form  a  complete  sentence  ;  a  predicate  must  be  add- 
ed to  show  that  something  is  said  of  the  subject,  thus :  if  we  have  tree* 
for  the  subject,  we  must  unite  with  it  something,  as  grow,  for  the  predicate, 
to  show  what  is  said  of  trees.  In  the  same  manner  we  have  water  Jiows, 
<<e  melts. 


SECTION  I. 

SIMPLE   SENTENCES  —  WORDS  —  RELATIONS 
UNREPRESENTED. 

A  simple  sentence  contains  but  one  proposition ;  as,  "  The 
crocus  blooms." 

A  proposition  is  the  combination  of  a  subject  and  a  predi- 
cate ;  as,  "  Virtue  ennobles." 

When  the  parts  of  a  sentence  are  placed  together  without 
any  intervening  word  to  show  the  connection,  the  relation  is 
said  to  be  unrepresented. 


A.    SUBJECT  AND   PREDICATE  UNMODIFIED. 

The  simplest  possible  sentence  contains  only  two  parts  — 
a  subject  and  a  predicate. 

The  subject  is  that  of  which  something  is  affirmed  ;  as, 
u  The  winds  blow." 


The  following  will  serve  as  a  model :  The  teacher,  standing  at  the  board,  says,  "  Wfco 
will  mention  something  for  a  subject?"  The  pupils  raise  their  hands  —  one  says, 
Lamb.  The  teacher  writes  upon  the  board  lamb.  The  teacher  now  says  to  the 
boy  who  gave  the  subject,  "  Had  you  in  mind  a  particular  lamb  ?  "  If  so.  what  sign 
should  we  prefix?  Ans.  The.  The  teacher  writes,  "  The  Iamb."  Now,  what  have 
you  to  say  of  the  lamb?  What  did  the  lamb  do?  Ana.  "  The  Iamb  ran."  The 
teacher  or  some  pupil  asks,  "  Wtotkind  of  lamb  ?  "  Ans.  "The  youii<r  lamb  ran." 
The  teacher  asks,  "  What  has  been  added  to  the  word  lamb  ?  "  Ans.  Young.  What 
kinds  of  lambs  are  excluded  by  it?  Ans.  All  kinds  but  young  ones.  The  teacher  or 
some  pupil  (let  the  members  of  the  class  be  encouraged  to  ask  questions)  asks,  "  How 
did  he  run  ?  "  Ans.  Stoifthj.  "  The  young  lamb  ran  swiftly.'''  What  effect  has  the 
wcid  swiftly?  Ans.  It  shows  how  the  lamb  ran,  and  forbids  us  think,  ig  of  bis 
running  in  any  other  manner  than  swiftly.  Other  questions  will  naturally  be  suggest- 
ed, such  as,  When,  Where,  or  Why  did  he  run  ?  Let  these  be  answered  in  the  same 
way.  The  teacher  will  now  see  how  he  can  give  out  a  lesson  which  will  both  occupy 
and  interest  the  whole  class.  He  proposes,  or  allows  the  members  to  propose,  soma 
four  or  five  subjects ;  ho  then  requires  them  to  bring  in  well-written  sentences,  hav- 
ing something  to  show  what  kind,  how  many,  what,  when,  where,  or  hew,  &c.  After 
several  exercises  of  this  kind,  the  teacher  can  show  the  class  that  one  word  sometimes 
answers  a  question  how,  where,  &c. ;  at  other  times,  two  or  mere  words  are  required, 
and  thus  the  way  is  prepared  for  tho  classified  examples  whic  i  follow. 


112  .ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

The  predicate  is  that  which  is  affirmed  of  the   subject 
as,  "  The  winds  blow." 

Note.  —  The  subject  may  be  known  by  its  answering  the  question  Who  ?  or  What  1 
thus:   Who  speaks ?    Ans.  Susan  speaks.   Waat  tell i  Ans.  Jlpvles  w\\      fne  predicate 

may  be  known  by  its  answering  the  question.  Whnt,  is doimj  ?  or  What  dot* 

-— —  do  1    What  does  John  do  ?    Ans.  John  writes. 


EXERCISES. 

Point  out  the  subject  and  predicate  in  the  following  :  — 
(1.)  (Subject  expressed.)    Roses  fade.     Time  flies.     S;nrsshme.     Chil- 
dren play.     She  reads.     I  hope.     They  hear.     Grass  g/  jws.     I  live.     He 
knows.     We  ride.     God  exists.    Jesus  wept.     Fruit  rj/ms. 

(2.)  (Subject  understood.)  Come.  Learn.  Go.  {fnAy.  Wait.  Spell. 
Construct.  Tell.  See.  Behold.  Return.  Awake.  Arise.  Sing.  Shout. 
March.     Halt.     Aim.    Fire. 

Supply  the  part  which  is  wanting  in  the  folhwi'vi .  — 

(3.)  (Subject  wanting.)  frisk. sta.g.   buzz.  

whisper.    study.    open      jhut.     rule.  

eat.    drink.    freezes. r  jngeals. 

(4.)  (Predicate  tcanting.)    Ducks .     Fishes .    Mice . 

Frogs .   Vapor .    De^- —  -     .Zephyrs .   Pines 

Waves .    Billows .    LigLcrorg .     Thunder . 


Supply  a  subject  and  precis' zate  ofyw  own  in  Jive  examples. 

vo.)  (Subject  and  predicate  wanting.)    , ,  &c. 

Unite  the  folPAcing  words  between  the  commas  into  sentences,  and  tell 
which  word  uude/gots  a  change  :  — 

(6.)  (Parts  AOf  cennbined.)  Wind  roar,  queen  reign,  he  speak,  she  sit, 
t  snorr,  Peter  dray^  do  <e  coo,  time  fly,  corn  ripen,  sugar  melt,  tree  bud, 
3erpent  hies. 

B.     SUBJECT  MODIFIED. 

ORAL  EXERCISE. 

Whm  the  subject  may  mean  any  one  of  a  great  number  of  objects,  how 
oan  we  signify  that  we  mean  one,  but  not  any  particular  one  ?  Ans.  By 
prefixing  a  or  an;  as,  a  book,  an  apple.  But  when  the  subject  may 
mean  any  one  or  more  of  a  great  number  of  objects,  how  can  we  signify 
th^t  we  mean  some  particular  object  or  objects  ?  Ans.  By  placing  the  be- 
fore it,  thus :  the  book,  the  apples.  But  does  the  show  "what  particular 
vjooks  or  apples  are  meant  ?  Ans.  It  does  not ;  it  only  shows  that  the 
speaker  is  thinking  of  something  in  particular.  How  can  he  show  what 
particular  thing  he  is  thinking  of  ?  Ans.  By  adding  some  word  or  words 
to  describe  or  i?idividualize  it.  (See  Introduction,  p.xxx.)  Thus  the  word 
horses  means  ah  the  horses  in  the  world ;  but  the  phrase  whits  horses 
means  only  a  part  of  them ;  the  phrase,  tioo  tohite  horses,  means  only  a 
email  part  of  the  white  horses,  while  the  phrase,  the  two  white  horses  in  yon- 
der stable,  means  the  particular  ones  intended.  Which  of  the  above  Itnli- 
tized  expressions  denotes  the  greatest  number  of  horses  ?  Ans. 
How  did  we  first  modify  it,  or  limit  the  number?  Ans.  By  adding 
white.     What  kinds  of  horses  does  the  word  tohite  exclude?    Ans.  Red 


SYNTAX  —  WORDS      -COMPLfiA     SUBJECTS  113 

brown,  black,  gray,  &c,  horses.  What  does  the  word  tyx,  exclude  ?  Am. 
It  excludes  any  number  greater  than  two.  What  does  the  expression  in  yon- 
der stable  exclude  ?  Am.  Any  two  horses,  even  though  they  may  be  white, 
if  found  any  where  else  than  in  the  stable.  Now,  if  we  use  horses,  thus 
limited  as  a  subject,  what  kind  of  a  subject  shall  we  have  ?  Am.  A  modi 
fied  subject. 

When  the  subject  is  described  or  limited  by  adding  to  it 
some  other  word  or  wvcta,  it  becomes  the  modified  subject 
Hence,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  simple  subject,  we  call  it 
ll\e  complex  or  logical  subject ;  as,   "  Five  birds  flew." 

Here  birds  is  the  simple  subject,  and  jive  fttrrfathe  complex  subject. 

A  sentence  having  a  modified  subject  consists  of  three 
parts  —  a  subject,  a  predicate,  and  an  adjective  part,  called 
the  adjective  element. 


VARIOUS  KINDS  OF   COMPLEX   SUBJECTS. 

(a.)  The  complex  subject  may  be  the  simple  subject,  and 
only  one  added  word  ;  as,  "  These  trees  grow." 

When  one  word  depends  upon,  and  limits  another,  the  lat- 
ter is  called  the  basis  or  principal  element ;  as,  "  Summer 
heat  debilitates."     Here  heat  is  the  basis. 


EXERCISES. 

In  the  following  examples  point  out  the  subject  and  the  added  word.  De- 
scribe the  latter,  and  explain  its  modifying  effect :  — 

(1.)  (Limiting  adjectives.)  This  man  came.  Five  dogs  ran.  One  tree 
fell.  The  ink  fades.  A  cat  plays.  Many  flowers  bloom.  Some  boys 
study.     These  fishes  swim.     Every  one  stands. 

(2.)  (Qualifying  adjectives.)  Old  wood  burns.  Wise  men  err.  Faith- 
ful horses  draw.  Hot  water  scalds,  (rood  scholars  learn.  Wicked  men 
fear.     Cold  winter  comes. 

(3.)  (Nouns  in  apposition  * )  King  Latinus  ruled.  Queen  Mary  reigned. 
President  Taylor  died.  Marshal  Soult  conquered.  Prince  Eugene  com- 
manded.    Madame  Elizabeth  suffered. 

(4.)  (Nouns  or  jrronouns  in  the  possessive  case.)  Mary's  mother  came. 
George's  horse  ran.  Wellington's  renown  increased.  Ellen's  hopes 
Vanished.  Maria's  journey  begin'  William's  invention  failed.  His  fin- 
ger bleeds      Our  door  creaks.     Pier  head  aches. 

Add  limiting  words  to  the  following  subjects  so  as  to  form  sentences  con- 
*  See  Model  for  apposition,  page  31,  or  Rule  VII. 

10* 


1 14  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

taining  th  ee  parts  —  three  like  (1),  three  like  (2),  three  like  (3),  and  thr~4 

uke  (4) 

(o.)  ( Adjective  element  wanting  )  iron  melts.  kitten  mews. 

rabbit  leaps.      men  prosper.      lions  devour. 

letters  arrive.     King sang.   Professor studies.   Doctor 

rides       son  reigned.      Messiah  pleases.     daughters 

wept. 

Supply  a  subject  and  adjective  part  for  the  following  predicates  :  — 

(6.)  (Subject  and  adjective  element  wanting.) chirps. 

crawls. fade.    ■ twinkles. - 

hops. feed. sinned. sail 

flourishes. teaches.     bites. 

fail. 

Combine  the  folloicing  elements  between  the  commas,  and  tell  what  changes 
you  mtist  make :  — 

(7.)  (Elements  not  constructed.)  Three  dove  coo,  high  school  change, 
Victoria  children  study,  Valentine  day  come,  apple  tree  bloom,  I  country 
bleed,  fair  Rhins  flow,  pale  Melancholy  sit,  the  plum  ripen,  one  boy  go, 
six  dog  bark. 

Correct  the  following  examples,  and  tell  xohat  words  you  alter :  — 
(8.)  (Elements  incorrectly  constructed.)     Some  people  says.     I  knows. 
This  ostriches  runs.     That  girls  sleeps.     Those  kind  grow.     Many  insect 
buzzes.      Little   acorn  grows.      Six  chicken  dies.     They  hears.     Boston 
Journal  arrive. 

(b.)  The  complex  subject  may  be  the  simple  subject  with 
two  or  more  added  words  ;  as,  "  That  good  ship  sailed." 

Here  the  adjective  part  consists  of  two  elements,  good,  which  describes  the  ship, 
and  that,  which  points  out  what  good  skip  is  meant. 

Two  cases  may  arise  ;  the  added  words  may  belong  directly 
to  the  subject,  or  they  may  first  be  added  to  each  other,  form- 
ing a  complex  adjective  element,  and  then  be  joined  as  a  com- 
bination to  the  subject,  forming  a  complex  subject ;  as, 
"  Those  old  soldiers  suffered."  "  Very  large  supplies 
arrived." 

Case  1.     Added  words  pined  directly  to  the  subject. 

EXERCISES, 

Point  oxd  the  added  words  in  the  following  examples,  and  explain  the*.' 
effect :- 

(1.)  (Two  limiting  adjectives.)  The  first  dawn  appeared.  The  two  travel- 
lers returned.  This  second  class  recites.  The  three  Horatii  fought.  The 
twelve  Cawars  reigned.     Many  a  gem  sparkles.     Such  an  assertion  startles. 

( 2. )  (  One  limiting  and  one  qualifying  adjective.)  That  popular  sovereign 
defended.  The  old" boiler  burst.  Every  new  lesson  puzzles.  The  calorio 
snip  sails.     Any  good  book  instructs     Several  old  \  ouses  fell. 


SYNTAX  —  WORDS  —  SUBJECT    MODIFIED.  115 

(3.)  (Two  limiting  adjectives  and  one  qualifying  one.)  The  iiist  pleasant 
day  came.  Those  two  young  men  contended.  Many  a  serious  thought 
arose.     Every  third  division  remained. 

(4.)  ( One  limiting  and  two  qualifying  adjectives.)  Those,  bright,  happy 
children  play.  The  old,  sad  memory  comes.  The  little  feathered  songster 
warbles.     That  ambitious  young  man  excels. 

(•5.)  (An  adjective  with  the  -noun  in  apposition.)  The  empress  Eugonia 
reigns.  The  apostle  Paul  preached.  The  Eiirtjr  Stephen  died.  This  boy 
George  repents. 

(6.)  (A  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  possessive,  and  a  noun  in  apposition, ) 
His  daughter  Sarah  dances.  Isaac's  son  Jacob  deceived.  Elizabeth's 
cousin  Mary  suffered.     Christ's  disciple  Judas  betrayed. 

Put  the  proper  words  in  the  following  blanks  :  — 

(7.)  (A  limiting  and  a  qualifying  adjective,  and  a  subject  wantitig.)        —  ~ 

blows. ■ fades. —  — — 

sows. sleeps. cries. 

— — howls. crows. cut. 

(8. )  ( A  noun  in  the  jiossessive,  and  a  noun  in  apposition  wanting.)    

teacher approves.     son married.    sister 

travelled.   daughter wrote.    student practised. 


Case  II.     Added  words  joined  to  each  other.,  and  then  joined 
to  the  subject,  complex  adjective  element. 

EXERCISES. 

Point  out  the  words  which  are  added  to  each  other,  and  explain  their  effect 
upon  each  other,  and  their  combined  effect  upon  the  subject. 

(1.)  (An  adverb  added  to  an  adjective.)  Very  strange  reports  arose. 
Exceedingly  heavy  rains  fell.  Dearly-beloved  friends '  depart.  A  truly 
great  man  appeared. 

(2.)  ( Adjectives  and  nouns  in  the  possessive.)  The  old  man's  daughter 
awoke.  The  huntsman's  horn  aroused/  The  bright  sun's  rays  illumine. 
The  wild  wind's  roar  alarms. 

(3.)  (Adjectives  and  nouns  in  apposition.)  Bunyan,  the  distinguished 
author,  composed.  Demosthenes,  the  celebrated  orator,  declaimed.  Frank- 
lin, the  American  ambassador,  negotiated.  Arnold,  the  base  traitor, 
escaped. 

(4.)  (A  noun  in  the  possessive,  and  a  noun  in  apposition.)  Victoria,  Eng- 
land's queen,  defends.  Elizabeth,  Henry's  daughter,  delayed.  George, 
Ellen's  teacher,  instructed.     Peter,  Christ's  disciple,  denied. 

Supply  the  proper  words  in  the  following  blanks  :  — 

(5.)  (Adjective  and  noun  in  the  possessive  wanting.) sword 

#lew. mate  mourned.      - crash  frightened. 

_ clerk  absconded. 

(6.)  (Adjective  and  noun  in  apposition  wanting.)     David 

lepented.     Solomon prayed.     Daniel 


Moses defended.      M;iain sang.      Bancroft 


1 16  ENGLISH     GRAMMAK. 

C.    PREDICATE  MODIFIED. 

ORAL   EXERCISE. 

If  I  say,  "  The  boy  opened,"  and  should  stop  there  without  saying  any 
thing  more,  what  question  would  you  naturally  ask  ?  Am.  What  did  h« 
open  ?  Will  you  mention  any  thing  that  he  might  open  ?  Am.  A  book,  a 
knife,  a  box,  a  door,  his  eyes,  his  hands,  his  mouth,  a  letter,  a  window,  an 
umbrella.  Now,  if  we  should  add  to  opened  either  of  these  words,  it  would 
restrict  its  application  to  that  one,  thus :  "  The  boy  opened  the  door." 
What  does  the  Avord  door  exclude  ?  Am.  Book,  knife,  &c.  Now,  when  a 
word  is  joined  to  a  transitive  verb  so  as  to  limit  its  meaning  by  ansAvering 
the  question  what  f  it  is  called  the  object  or  objective  element,  and  the  predi- 
cate becomes  a  modified  predicate.  So,  again,  if  I  should  say,  "  The  boy 
runs,"  what  Avould  you  ask,  if  you  Avished  to  knoAV  where  he  Avas  running  ? 
Am.  Where  does  he  run  ?  Right ;  and  I  should  answer,  pointing,  He 
runs  yonder.  In  a  similar  manner  you  may  ansAver  the  question,  Wh&x 
docs  he  run  ?  How  does  he  run  ?  When  a  word  is  added  to  a  predicate 
restricting  its  meaning,  and  answering  the  questions  Where  1  Whtu  1  Why  f 
or  Hotv  ?  it  is  called  an  adverb,  or  an  adverbial  element,  and  the  predicate 
becomes  a  modified  predicate. 

When  the  predicate  is  described  or  limited  by  adding  to  it  some  other 
word  or  Avords,  it  becomes  the  modified  predicate.  Hence,  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  simple  predicate,  we  call  it  the  complex  or  logical  predicate ; 
as,  "  They  found  gold." 

Here,  found  is  the  simple  predicate,  and  found  gold  the  logical  predicate. 
A  sentence  having  a  modified  predicate  consists  of  at  least  three  parts, 
a  subject,  a  predicate,  and  an  additional  part  called  either  the  objective  of 
the  adverbial  element. 


VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  COMPLEX  PREDICATES. 

(a.)  The  complex  predicate  may  be  the  simple  predicate 
and  onty  one  added  word  ;  as,  "  The  refiner  purifies  silver." 


EXERCISES. 

Point  out  in  the  following  examples  the  predicate  and  the  added  word ; 
describe  the  latter,  and  explain  its  modifying  effect :  — 

(1.)  (Objective  element.)  They  pared  apples.  Henry  gathered  hazel 
nuts.  Sarah  found  violets.  He  killed  mice.  John  sold  matches.  George 
melted  lead.    Mary  boiled  chestnuts. 

(2.)  ( Adverbial  element — place.)  She  dAvells  there.  Who  comes  here  ? 
The  shadow  moved  backAvards.  The  thimble  lies  somewhere.  She  resides 
yonder.    You  may  come  up.     The  child  sits  doAAii. 

(%.  )  (Adverbial  element  —  time.)  I  hope  ahvays.  Anna  arrived  yester 
day.  She  often  yields.  You  change  continually.  I  hear  frequently.  He 
*omes  occasionally.     He  rides  noAV. 

(4  )  (Adverbial  element  —  cause.)    Why  came  ye  ?     Wherefore  ask  you  ? 

(5.)  (Adverbial  element  —  manner.)  She  played  finely.  The  cam 
paign  opened  vigorously.  The  cars  run  rapidly.  The  eagle  soared  proud 
ly.    The  owl  screeches  mournfully.    The  curtains  hang  gracefully. 


SYNTAX  —  PREDICATE  MODIFIED.  117 

Add  limiting  words  to  the  following  predicates  so  as  to  farm  sentences 
t&itaining  three  parts  ;  — 

(6.)  (Subject  and  object  wanting.)    seal  -  < . devours 

i .      denied .      whipped . drank 

.      tied  . ploughed  .     reaped 

caught .     admits . command- 


ed 


(7.)  (Verb  and  adverb  wanting.)     Wolves .     Bears  — 

Vtt" 


Signs .    Vultures .    Crocodiles 

Hvenas .  Wheat .    Rye- 


Steamboats 

Combine  the  following  elements  between  the  commas,  and  tell  wltat  changes 
you  must  make  :  — 

(8.)  (Elements  not  constructed.)  Sarah  help  I,  Frank  play  ball,  John 
strike  she,  Child  gather  moss,  Ink  finger  stain,  Itain  wet  ground. 
Shower  revive  plant,  Dust  cover  coat,  Cloud  obscure  sun,  Judge  sen- 
tence he,  He  climb  tree. 

(b.)  The  complex  predicate  may  be  the  simple  predicate 
with  two  or  more  added  words ;  as,  "  He  examined  them 
critically.'''' 

Here  the  predicate  examined  receives  two  additions,  them  and  critically.  The  com 
plex  predicate  consists,  tiierefore,  of  the  simple  predicates  and  two  added  words. 

Here,  as  in  the  subject,  two  cases  may  arise  ;  the  added 
words  may  belong  directly  to  the  predicate,  or  they  may  first 
be  added  to  each  other,  forming  a  complex  objective  or  a 
complex  adverbial  element,  and  then  be  joined  to  the  predi- 
cate, forming  a  complex  predicate  ;  as,  "  He  wrote  elegant 
letters.''''     "  She  walked  very  slowly. n 

Case  I.     Added  words  joined  directly  to  the  predicate. 
EXERCISER. 

Point  oid  the  added  words  in  the  following  examples,  and  explain  their 
effect:  — 

(1.)  (Two  objective  elements.)  Give  me  flowers.  They  lent  him  money, 
They  made  him  king.  I  wrote  him  letters.  She  taught  me  geogiaphy. 
He  appointed  John  monitor.     They  called  him  George. 

(2.)  (Objective  and  adverbial  elements. )  They  planted  seeds  there.  They 
raised  corn  abundantly.  He  attends  lectures  constantly.  The  master 
taught  him  skilfully.  He  never  found  it.  He  now  eats  met  t.  The  Bible 
teaches  truth  impressively.     He  utters  subvocals  distinctly. 

Fill  the  fo'lmoing  blanks  with  appropriate  words :  — 

(3.)  (Subject  and  predicate  wanting.)    The skilfully.      Ha 

beautifully.      Napoleon triumphantly."     Kos 

•uth eloquently.     The  lady exquisitely.     The 

dock now.     lie  seldom  — .     She   often"  — — .. 


118  •     ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

(4.)  {Subject  and  adverb  wanting.)    caugfci  fish  — — • 

sold  books .    spent  money .    struck  William 

.      gathered  strawberries .      cultivated  tree* 

■    .    mowed  grass  tended  sheep  — — • 

dressed  vines  — — — .     sawed  wood -.     hunted  dees 

Combine  the  following  elements  between  the  commas,  and  tell  what  change* 
you  must  make : — 

(5.)  {Elements  not  constructed.)  Clergyman  preach  forcible  sermon, 
Widely  open  gate  porter  the,  Carriage  coachman  drive  rapidly,  Boy  gun 
carelessly  handle,  Poetry  often  wrote  she,  Hear  occasionally  music  they, 
Carpenter  saw  suddenly  break. 

Case  II.  Added  words  joined  to  each  other,  and  then  joined 
to  the  predicate  —  complex  objective  and  complex  adverbial 
elements. 

EXERCISES. 

Point  out  the  words  which  are  added  to  each  other,  and  explain  their  com- 
bined effect  upon  the  predicate :  — ■ 

(1.)  {Adjective  added  to  the  object.)  He  lived  a  desolate  life.  They 
fauna  agreeable  companions.  The  merchant  sold  damaged  goods.  The 
sailor  climbed  the  slippery  mast.  The  vessel  reached  the  desired  haven. 
The  islands  yield  delicious  spices.  The  lady  wrought  a  beautiful  divan. 
The  teacher  received  a  handsome  present. 

(2.)  {Possessive  case  and  object.)  She  recognized  Henry's  voice.  Helen 
read  the  Dairyman's  Daughter.  The  boy  heeded  his  father's  advice.  He 
hurt  his  finger.  She  lent  her  scissors.  They  kept  their  work.  We  rented 
our  house.     I  lost  my  knife.     They  felt  Fortune's  frown.  

(3.)  {Object  and  noun  in  opposition.)  They  burned  Huss  the  reformer. 
They  executed  Andre  the  spy.  They  read  Chaucer  the  poet.  They 
obeyed  William  the  Conqueror.     Herod  beheaded  John  the  Baptist. 

(4.)  {An  adverb  added  to  an  adverb.)  She  hears  very  imperfectly.  He 
performs  more  skilfully.  They  go  too  often.  She  sews  very  neatly.  He 
managed  most  adroitly. 

Fill  the  following  blanks  with  appropriate  words  :  — 

(5. )  (  Object  and  adjective  omitted.)    He  refused .    He  sough. 

He  drove .  The  merchant  kept  ■ 


The   captain   commanded .      The  clerk  transcribed • 

■  The  legislature  passed  — — — .    The  committee  appointed 

(6.)  {Complex  object  and  adverb  wanting.)     The  lawyer  argued 

—  The  physician  healed .    The  company  insured  — — 

— — — .    The  president  issued .     He  burned  ■ . 

The  shoemaker  hammered .    The  carpenter  planed 


D.    SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE' MODIFIED. 
The  subject  and  predicate  of  a  sentence  may  both  be» 
modified  at  the  same  time,  forming  a  complex  subject  and 


SYNTAX  —  PHF,  ASES  —  RELATIONS    REPRESENTED.        1  IS 

a  complex  predicate  ;  as,  "  Refreshing  showers  soon  revived 
the  drooping  plants.  ■ 

We  may  thus  have  a  sentence  consisting  of  five  parts  or 
elements  —  a  subject,  a  predicate,  an  adjective  element,  an 
objective  element,  and  an  adverbial  element. 

EXERCISES. 

Point  ozd  the  Jive  elements  in  the  following  sentences,  and  tell  whethw 
they  are  simple  or  complex  :  — 

The  distinguished  historian  Xenophon  skilfully  conducted  the  dangeioua 
retreat.  Leonidas,  the  brave  Spartan  hero,  gallantly  defended  the  narrow 
pass.     Cornelia,   the  noble  Roman  matron,  proudly  called  her  sons  her 

tewels.     Socrates,  the  Grecian  philosopher,  calmly  drank  the  poisonous 
lemlock. 

Add  to  the  following  subjects  and.  predicates  any  elements  which  will  render 
them  complex ;  also  construct  entire  sentences  having  Jive  elements :  — 

The  fire  burns.  The  cloud  obscured.  The  planets  revolve.  The  sun 
attracts.     The  moon  has.    The  mines  yield.     The  Scriptures  afford. 


section  n. 

SIMPLE   SENTENCES  —  PHRASES  —  RELATIONS 
REPRESENTED. 

When  the  parts  of  a  sentence  are  brought  together  with 
an  intervening  word  to  show  a  connection,  the  relation  is 
said  to  be  represented  ;  as,  "  The  flag  of  the  Union  was 
floating  in  the  breeze." 

Here  the  relation  of  floating  to  flag  (predicate  relation)  is  represented  by  was;  that 
of  Union  to  flag  (adjective  relation)  is  represented  by  of;  that  of  breeze  to  floating  (ad- 
verbial relation)  is  represented  by  in. 

The  connective  and  word  following  it  constitute  an  ele- 
ment or  component  part  of  the  sentence  ;  as,  "  To  steal 
(sub.)  is  base"  (pred.)  Hence  an  element  with  its  relation 
expressed  is  a  phrase  consisting,  in  its  simplest  state,  of  two 
words  ;  and  in  order  to  distinguish  it  from  an  element  of  the 
first  class,  which  consists  of  only  one  word,  the  relation  be- 
ing implied,  it  is  called  a  phrase,  or  element  ot  the  sem^4 
class. 


1*50  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

Rem.  —  When  to,  for,  or  that,  introduces  the  subject,  it  can  have  no  an- 
teceder  t  terra  on  which  to  depend,  since  the  subject  is  that  on  which  all 
r>ther  parts  depend.  Hence  it  is  scarcely  correct  to  say  that  to,  for,  or 
that,  in  such  uses,  shows  a  relation,  although  each  is  a  relation-word  ;  as, 
"  To  err  is  human."  "  For  you  to  deceive  is  surprising."  "  That  you 
should  deceive  is  surprising." 


A.    SUBJECT  AND    PREDICATE   NOT  MODD3TE1) 

Here,  again,  the  simplest  possible  sentence  contains  only 
two  parts  —  a  subject  and  a  predicate. 

When  the  unmodified  subject  consists  of  two  words,  it  must 
be  the  infinitive,  or  first  form  of  the  verb,  with  "  to  "  pre- 
fixed ;  as,  "  To  deceive  is  criminal." 

When  the  unmodified  predicate  consists  of  two  parts,  it  is 
composed  of  the  copula  (link  or  connective)  and  the  attribute. 
The  attribute  may  be  either  a  participle,  an  adjective,  or  a 
noun  or  pronoun  in  the  nominative. 

In  the  predicate  two  classes  of  relations  should  be  distin- 
guished, (1.)  A  predicate  relation  expressed  by  the  copula, 
or  some  copulative  verb,  (Rem.  5,  p.  53,)  and  (2.)  A  rela 
lion  of  time  and  mode  expressed  either  by  the  form  of  tho 
verb,  or  by  some  auxiliary ;  as, "  We  were  successful." 
1  We  shall  have  written." 

Note.  —  When  the  attribute  is  an  adjective,  a  noun,  or  an  active  or  passive  parti 
ciple,  the  former  relation  is  shown  by  the  copula,  and  the  latter  by  the  various  form* 
of  the  copula  j  as,  "  He  was  active,  has  been  active,  may  haw.  been  active,"  &c. 


EXERCISES. 

Point  out  the  subject  and  predicate  in  the  following  examples,  and  thovt 
which  has  a  connective :  — 

I.    Only  one  Connective. 

(1.)  (Subject  having  a  connective.)  To  love  exalts.  To  exercise  strength- 
ens.   To  walk  invigorates.    To  forgive  ennobles. 

(2.)  (Attribute  having  a  connective — participle.)  The  boat  is  approach- 
ing. The  fruit  was  destroyed.  The  ceremony  was  performed.  The  prunes 
were  purchased.  Her  health  is  improving.  Night  is  coming.  Hopes 
were  frustrated.  Imagination  was  painting.  Property  was  inherited. 
Estates  are  entailed.     Science  is  progressing. 

(3J  (Attribute  an  adjective.)    Medicine  is  nauseous.    Coffee  is  fragrant 


SYNTAX — ■  SUBJECT   AND  PREDICATE  NOT  MODIFIED.        12\ 

Oranges  are  delicious.  Games  are  pleasant.  Questions  are  hard.  Heat 
is  oppressive.  Appearances  are  deceitful.  Scholars  are  docile.  Study  is 
delightful.  Geometry  is  difficult.  Teachers  are  faithful.  Mines  are 
dark. 

(4.)  i  Attribute,  a  noun  or  pronoun.)  Gold  is  a  metal.  It  is  I.  Otho  ia 
a  kinu.  He  is  the  superintendent.  You  are  my  brother.  Mary  is  hei 
cousin.  He  is  our  physician.  The  gentleman  is  a  politician.  Dickens  is 
an  author.  It  is  she.  He  is  a  merchant.  Ireland  is  an  island.  Aspin 
wall  is  a  city.    Panama  is  an  isthmus. 

(5.)  (Copulative  verbs,  page  53.)  He  seems  inattentive.  She  was  es» 
teamed  a  lady.  General  Pierce  is  elected  president.  He  became  poor. 
The  ore  is  called  silver.  I  walk  a  queen.  Aristides  was  called  the  Just. 
Pisistratus  was  called  a  tyrant.  Moses  was  esteemed  faithful.  The  prop- 
osition remains  true. 

Give  the  mode  and  tense  of  the  folloioing  predicates,  and  explain  the  use 
of  the  auxiliaries,  then  change  them  to  other  modes  and  tenses  : — 

(6.)  (Simple  relation's  of  time  and  mode.)  They  have  written.  He  may 
come.  Stop.  You  have  returned.  I  went.  She  will  play.  They  may 
attend.  It  will  be.  You  can  reply.  I  have  heard.  I  study.  You  re- 
ceived. They  might  have  known.  I  have  exercised.  We  win  promise 
If  he  had  thought.  It  can  be  done.  He  expelled.  You  will  record. 
He  bade.     We  walked.     You  might  have  been  riding. 

Point  out  the  copida  and  attribute,  and  give  the  mode  and  tense  of  tJie 
copula :  — 

(7.)  (Predicate  relation,  and  relations  of  time  and  mode  combined.)  He 
may  have  been  sick.  You  have  been  ricli.  That  may  be  true.  The  storv 
is  false.  Knowledge  is  power.  It  would  have  been  wise.  He  should  have 
been  rewarded.  It  mil  have  been  finished.  The  relation  is  sustained. 
You  were  angry.  The  truth  must  be  acknowledged.  The  man  was  wick- 
ed. It  must  be  the  same.  He  is  alive.  She  will  have  been  esteemed 
good. 

(8.)  (Subject  omitted.)  Be  active.  Be  industrious.  Be  a  man.  Become 
wise.     Appear  calm.     Remain  standing.     Be  kind. 

Fill  the  following  blanks  with  approirriate  words  :  — 

(9.)  (Subject  wanting.)     is  sitting.     is  a  scholar.    

is  delayed.     are  mended.     ;  was  pleasant.     should  be 

writing.  was  grateful.  is  freighted.  has  been  neg- 
lected.   is  fulfilled.  had  been  allowed.  will  be  man- 
ufactured.     may  be  lost. 

(10.)  (Attribute  wanting.)    David  was .    Thou  art .    The 

vessel  would  have  been  — .     The  cargo  was .     The  port  will  be 

.     The  harbor  is .     The  freight  is .     The  machinery  was 

.     The  lifeboat  was .     The  passengers  had  been .     The 

state  rooms  would  have  been .     The  wheeDiouse  was .    TLf 

berths  are .    The  waiters  will  be . 

(11.)  (Copida  wanting.)    The  wind boisterous.    The  rocks 

dangerous.    The  danger unheeded.    The  storm terrible.    Th« 

pumps leaking.      The  waves mountain  high.     Hope 

abandoned.      They clinging.      Many despairing.      No  on* 

left.      All quiet.      The  sea peaceful.      They 

lost.     Friends mounting. 

(12.)  (Subject  and  attribute  wanting.)    might  have  been ■ 

was .    is .    could  have  been' '. 

•  must  have  oeen .    —  wert .     wast  — -  —  • 

11 


122  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

art will  be  .    will  have  been 

•would  have  been  regarded .    might  ha-v  e  been  coa 


kidered 


II.    Two  Connectives. 

x13.)  (Subject  an  infinitive.)  To  err  is  human.  To  forgive  is  divine, 
T  >  lie  is  wicked.  To  cheat  is  mean.  To  tattle  is  disgraceful.  To  betraj 
is  infamous. 

(14.)  (The  last  examples  changed.)    It  is  human  to  err,  &c. 

(15.)  (Predicate  an  infinitive  or  preposition  and  noun.)  His  expectation 
is  to  ride.  Her  hope  is  to  return.  Her  desire  is  to  leave.  The  child  is  ia 
good  health.    The  pupil  is  without  books.    The  lady  is  in  sorrow. 


III.    Three  Connectives. 

(16.)  (Subject  and  predicate  infinitives.)    To  pilfer  is  to  steal.    To  love 
is  to  obey.    To  pray  is  to  supplicate.     To  be  good  is  to  be  happy. 


B.     SUBJECT  MODIFIED. 

The  subject  may  be  modified,  — 

(1.)  By  a  single  element  —  a  phrase. 

(2.)  By  two  or  more  elements,  one  of  which  is  a  phrase. 

When  the  unmodified  adjective  element  consists  of  two 
words,  it  is  either  an  infinitive,  or  a  phrase  composed  of  a 
preposition,  (connective,)  and  its  olject.  The  object  is  either 
a  noun,  pronoun,  or  participle  in  the  objective. 

We  have  here,  as  in  Section  L,  two  cases  :  first,  when  both 
elements  are  added  directly  to  the  subject ;  and  second,  when 
they  are  first  added  to  each  other,  and  then  added  to  the  sub- 
ject, forming  a  complex  adjective  element. 

If  the  basis  or  principal  element  is  of  the  first  class,  the 
complex  element  is  of  the  first  class,  whatever  the  additions 
to  it  may  be.  So,  again,  if  the  basis  is  of  the  second  class, 
the  entire  complex  element  is  of  the  second  class. 

Rem.  —  When  two  elements  are  added  together,  three  cases  may  occur 
The  first,  that  is,  the  basis,  or  principal  element,  may  have  a  connective, 
and  the  second  may  have  none  ;  the  second  may  have  a  connective,  and 
the  basis  none ;  both  may  have  a  connective ;  as,  "  The  hope  op  great 
wealth."  "  William,  Pkince  of  Oraruje."  "  A  collection  of  books  oj 
travels."  In  the  second  example,  "  AVilliam  "  is  modified  by  a  complex 
adjective  element  o'  the  first  class,  because  "  prince,"  the  basis,  is  joined 
*l  "  William  "  will  out  a  connective.     In   the  first  example,  "  hope  "  is 


SYNTAX PHRASES ADJECTIVE    ELEMENTS.  123 

modified  by  a  complex  adjective  element  of  the  second  class,  because  the 
basis  "of  wealth  "  has  its  connection  represented  by  "  of."  To  this  is 
addeil  an  element  of  the  first  class,  "  great."  In  the  third  example,  both 
the  basis  and  itt.  dependent  element  are  of  the  second  class. 

An  element  is  said  to  be  transformed,  when  it  is  changed 
from  one  form  or  class  to  another ;  as,  "  The  dews  of  the. 
morning  have  passed  away "  =  The  morning  dews  have 
Di=sed  away. 


EXERCISES. 

Point  out  the  adjective  element  in  the  following  examples,  and  explain  the 

ctmjjicx  subject :  — 

I.    Only  one  Added  Element. 

(I  )  ( 0? ie  adjective  element  — a  phrase.)  Statues  of  marble  were  chis- 
elled. Works  on  history  were  consulted.  Men  of  science  have  appeared. 
Days  of  fasting  were  appointed.  Bouquets  of  flowers  were  presented. 
Fields  of  grain  were  waving. 

(2.)  (Adjective  elements  of  Exercise,  (1.)  transformed.)  Marble  statuea 
were  chiselled,  9  s. 


II.    Two  on  Moiie  Added  Elements. 
Case  I.     Both  elements  addtd  directly  to  the  subject, 

(3.)  (Tioo  or  more  adjective  elements  of  different  classes.)  The  laws  of 
England  were  established.  The  first  settlers  at  Plymouth  were  called  Puri- 
tans. The  £reat  bard  of  Avon  sleeps.  Huge  waves  of  the  ocean  over- 
whelmed.   Many  men  of  distinction  arose. 

(4.)  {The  adjective  element  of  the  last  exercise  transformed.)  The  Eng- 
lish laws  were  established,  &c. 

In  the  following  transform  the  adjective  clement  of  the  first  to  an  adjective 
element  of  the  second  class  :  — 

(5.)  (Adjective  clement  tra?isformed.)  Brazen  hinges  were  made  =2 
Hinges  of  brass  were  made.  Solomon's  temple  was  destroyed.  A  teacher's 
meeting  was  held.  The  lecturer's  voice  was  heard.  The  convent's  gates 
closed.  Tsew  year's  day  has  passed.  An  hour's  delay  occurred.  The 
shepherd's  dog  barks.     The  huntsman's  horn  resounds. 

Add  to  the  following  subjects  an  adjective  element  of  the  second  class,  and 
then  change  it  to  one  of  the  first :  — 

(6.)  (Adjective  element  wanting.)      Men were   appointed.      The 

resemblance was  striking.     The  office was  closed.     The  fate 

■ was  unknown.    Men will  be  rewarded.     Gems were 

found.    The  voice was  heard.     The  truth was  corroborated. 

The  size was  great.    The  morals improved. 


i24  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

Case  II.     Added  elements  joined  to  each  other  —  complex 
adjective  elements. 

Point  out  the  complex  adjective  element  in  the  following,  and  describl 
it:  — 

(7.)  (Basis  or  principal  element  of  the  first  class  —  added  element  of  the 
second.)  Paul,  the  apostle  to  the  Gentiles,  was  imprisoned.  An  army, 
confident  of  success,  is  invincible.  Peter,  moved  by  the  Spirit,  became 
fearless.  The  duke,  the  general  of  the  allied  army,  was  distinguished. 
Hortense,  the  daughter  of  Josephine,  was  beautiful.  The  maiden,  the 
beauty  of  the  village,  was  chosen.  George,  the  elder  of  the  brothers,  won 
the  prize. 

( 8. )  ( Principal  element  of  the  second  —  added  one  of  the  first. )  A  disease 
of  great  malignity  prevailed.  A  king  of  great  distinction  succeeded.  The 
father  of  the  lost,  prince  never  smiled.  The  man  of  many  sorrows  lived. 
The  wind  of  the  winter  night  moaned.  The  sufferings  of  the  beautiful 
child  were  ended.  The  grave  of  little  Nelly  was  visited.  Flowers  of 
many  hues  were  described. 

(9.)  (Both  elements  of  the  second  class.)  Jewels  of  gold  from  California 
were  made.  An  observation  of  the  sun  in  'the  meridian  was  taken.  The 
brother  of  Richard  I.  of  England  reigned.  A  king  of  the  house  of  Bruns- 
wick was  insane.  A  jailer  of  the  dauphin  of  France  was  named  Simon. 
The  friend  of  the  son  of  the  king  was  pardoned. 

(10.)  Fill  the  following  blanks  with  the  appropriate  complex  elements  :  — 
The  genius -  demands  it.  The  diamonds spar- 
kle.    The  treasures were  seized.     The  jealousy 

was  annoying.    The  parents were  unknown.    The  bells ■ 

were  chiming.     The  analysis was  perspicuous.     The 

jrass is  mown. 


C.    PREDICATE  MODIFIED. 
The  predicate  may  be  modified,  — 

(1.)  By  a  single  phrase,  (preposition  and  object.) 

(2.)  By  two  or  more  elements,  one  of  which  is  a  phrase. 

The  simple  objective  or  adverbial  element  when  a  -phrase 
is  either  an  infinitive,  or  is  composed  of  a.  preposition  and  its 
object. 

We  have  here,  as  in  Section  I.,  two  cases:  first, when 
both  elements  are  added  directly  to  the  predicate  ;  and  second 
when  they  are  first  added  to  each  other,  and  then  added  to 
the  predicate,  forming  a  complex  objective,  or  a  complex  ad 
verbial  element. 


SYNTAX  —  ADDED    ELEMENTS.  125 


EXERCISES. 

Poivt  out  the  complex  predicate  in  the  following  examples,  and  explain 
the  effect  of  the  added  elements  :  — 

I.    Only  one  Added  Element. 

(1.)  (Objective  element  *  direct.)  He  hoped  to  succeed.  She  desired  to 
write.  Thev  wished  to  do  right.  He  seeks  to  excel.  You  are  expected 
to  attend.  I  am  trying  to  learn.  She  means  to  obey.  I  hope  to  traTel. 
Tl  e  watch  needs  to  be  repaired.  They  like  to  travel.  She  wills  to  do  it. 
The  book  deserves  to  be  read.     The  man  ought  to  be  imprisoned. 

(2.)  (Objective  element,  indirect.)  I  spoke  to  him.  We  heard  of  his  suc- 
cess. They  gave  it  to  the  church.  Speak  to  him.  They  know  of  the 
opportunity. 

(3. )  (Adverbial  element — place.)  She  came  to  the  party.  The  plums  fell 
from  the  tree.  The  ball  lay  on  the  hearth.  Anna  sat  in  the  carriage.  His 
thoughts  were  concentrated  on  the  subject.  The  letter  was  found  in  the 
post  office.  The  express  will  come  from  New  York.  The  cucumbers  are 
abundant  on  the  vines. 

(4.)  (Adverbial  element  —  time.)  In  the  morning  it  flourisheth.  I  shall 
go  in  the  evening.  It  will  be  finished  in  a  fortnight.  Caesar  fought  on 
the  next  day.  The  book  will  be  finished  in  four  weeks.  Come  on 
Tuesday. 

(5.)  (Adverbial  element  —  cause.)  She  cried  from  fear.  We  remained  to 
hear  the  report.  The  man  suffered  from  poverty.  The  children  were 
speechless  from  delight.  Christ  was  betrayed  for  money.  Tne  party  were 
travelling  for  pleasure.     The  martyrs  suffered  for  Christ's  sake. 

(6.)  (Adverbial  element  —  manner.)  The  dove  flew  with  rapidity.  The 
messenger  came  in  haste.  He  writes  with  accuracy.  The  world  was  made 
by  him.  James  walked  with  his  sister.  The  Greeks  succeeded  by  strata- 
gem. Milk  is  good  for  children.  She  was  diffident  to  excess.  Emily 
was  delighted  with  her  present. 


II.    Two  ok  More  Added  Elements. 
Case  I.     Both  elements  added,  directly  to  the  predicate. 

(7.)  (Two  direct  objects,  one  first  mid  one  second  class.)  He  urged  him 
to  go.  He  sought  friends  to  help  him.  The  doves  besought  the  hawk  to 
defend  them.  Martha  invited  Emily  to  visit  her.  I  saw  the  rain  [to]  fall. 
He  bade  me  tell  you.     Let  us  sit.     They  made  the  man  labor. 

(8.)  (Direct  object,  first  class,  indirect  second.)  George  gave  a  book  to 
me.  Charles  t$d  him  of  his  father's  death.  He  begged  a  favor  of  me. 
Mary  brought  a  present  to  me.  He  taught  writing  to  me.  Send  the 
bracelet  to  me.  You  may  throw  the  ball  to  me.  You  promised  a  reward 
to  the  best  scholar.    They  played  games  for  us.    I  lent  a  book  to  father. 

Note.  —  Let  the  pupil  rewrite  these  examples,  anil  place  the  indirect  object  first, 
and  dispense  with  the  preposition,  thus :  "I  lent  father  a  book.'; 

(9.)  (Objective  of  the  first,  adverbial  of  the  second  class.)  We  heard  their 
songs  in  the  grove.    We  left  our  home  in  the  morning.    You  wrote  the 

*  See  Rule  VIII.  -  Rem.  1. 
11* 


126  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR, 

letter  to  hasten  Ids  coming.  T'hcy  learned  to  sins?  in  their  childhood.  W* 
gathered  the  wild  flowers  in  the  meadow.  He  made  the  effort  for  their 
good.     He  faughl  Uic  Bible  class  with  great  earnestness. 

FiU  the  following  blanks  with  appropriate  adverbial  elements  of  time,  place, 
cause,  or  manner  :  — 

(10.)  (Adverbial  element  wanting.)    The  kangaroo  lives .     A  treaty 

of  peace  was  concluded .     The  consul  resides .     They  wished 

to  go .    The  cars  will  arrive .    The  visit  was  anticipated . 

My  dear  friend  came .     Cornwallis  surrendered .     He  mar- 

ttged .  Past  events  were  recalled .  The  young  lady  was  ad- 
mired  .     I  have  been  here .     The  work  must  be  completed 

.     We  were  sitting .     The  horse  ran . 


Case  II.     The  elements  added  to  each  other. 

(11.)  (Objective  first  class,  adjective,  second.)  I  found  masses  of  rock. 
They  made  a  fire  of  coals.  They  elected  a  professor  of  history.  She  threw 
the  apple  of  discord.  They  asked  the  son  of  Priam.  He  awarded  the  prize 
of  beauty.  He  tended  the  flocks  of  sheep.  He  admired  the  beauty  of 
Helen. 

(12.)  {Indirect  objective  second,  adjective  second.)  The  book  was  given  to 
the  chairman  of  the  committee.  He  wrote  to  the  friend  of  his  sister.  He 
sought  for  the  truth  of  the  report.  The  arrangement  was  made  for  the 
child  of  my  brother. 

(13.)  (Infinitive  and  adverbial,  first  or  second.)  He  desires  to  write  elegant- 
ly. They  attempted  to  remain  at  home.  He  seems  to  sleep  quietly.  Chil- 
dren love  to  change  constantly.  We  hope  to  see  clearly.  I  hope  to  write 
with  great  diligence.  I  wish  to  return  in  two  years.  We  strive  always  to 
excel.     He  loves  to  rise  with  the  early  dawn. 

(14.)  (Adverbial  second,  adjective  first.)  The  bear  came  from  a  dense  for 
est.  The  child  returned  after  a  long  absence.  The  governor  departed  for  his 
southern  tour.  The  experiments  were  made  in  a  mysterious  manner.  The 
room  was  filled  with  the  sweet  perfume.  He  departed  in  the  early  morn- 
ing.    The  fruit  must  be  gathered  before  next  week. 

( 15. )  (Adverbial  seco7id,  adjective  second.)  Moses  stood  on  the  summit  of 
Pisgah.  The  city  was  situated  at  the  head  of  the  bay.  We  left  on  the 
morning  of  the  new  year.  The  Bible  was  translated  by  men  of  learning. 
Napoleon  was  banished  to  the  Island  of  St.  Helena.  We  sailed  around  the 
Island  of  Juan  Fernandez.     I  stood  on  the  steps  of  the  Capitol. 

Construct  sentences  of  your  cwn  illustrating  any  of  the  above  elements* 


».     SUBJECT  AND  PKEDICATE  MODIFIED. 

A  sentence  may  contain  a  subject  and  a  predicate,  each 
modified  in  any  of  the  above  ways. 

*  The  teacher  should  multip>v  and  vary  these  exercises  according  to  the  wants  « 
the  learner 


SYNTAX COMPLEX    SENTENCES CLAUSES,   ETC.       127 


EXERCISES. 

Point  out  the  subject  and  predicate,  and  point  out  the  various  modifications 
in  the  following :  — 

The  news  of  his  death  filled  his  mother's  heart  with  sorrow.  To  be- 
nme  an  admiral  was  Nelson's  noble  resolution  in  his  childhood.  It  is  the 
work  of  a  lifetime  to  become  truly  good.  The  children  of  my  brother  have 
some  to  visit  me.  The  son  of  the  king  succeeded  to  the  throne.  The 
authorship  of  the  book  has  never  been  ascertained  with  certainty. 

Add  elements  to  the  following  subjects  and  predicates,  so  as  to  illustrate 
any  of  the  foregoing  cases :  — 

The  watch  was  given .    He  attempts .   She  manages . 

William  brought .    Lucy  sought  — .    The  pigeon  flew . 

He  remained  — .     "We  spoke .     Mary  came .     Grass  grows 

.     Come .     Robert  seems .     They  love .     The 

three  women .     Peter  denied .     John  learned .     Thou 

rarest .     Ruth was .     The  storm caused . 

The  church has  been  built .     My  sister came . 

The  news was  received .     The  minister has  gone . 

The  time is  coming . 


SECTION    III. 

COMPLEX   SENTENCES  —  CLAUSES  —  RELA- 
TIONS  REPRESENTED. 

The  propositions  which  unite  to  form  a  sentence  are  called 
its  clauses;  as,  "The  wicked  flee  —  when  no  man  pur- 
sueth  ;  but  the  righteous  are  bold  —  as  a  lion  [is.]  " 

A  proposition  standing  alone,  or  not  affected  by  a  connec- 
tive, is  a  simple  sentence.     il  Vice  degrades." 

A  proposition  under  the  influence  of  a  subordinate  con- 
nective is  called  a  subordinate  or  dependent  proposition  or 
clause  ;  as,  "  When  spring  comes,  the  flowers  will  bloom." 

Here,  "  when  sprint?  comrs  "  is  a  subordinate  proposition.  The  subordinate  connec- 
twe  when  changes  trie  simple  sentence  "spring  comes  "  to  a  mere  element  of  the 
other  proposition  to  which  it  is  joined.  And  as  it  is  made  to  take  the  place  of  an  ad 
verb  of  time,  it  is  called  an  adverbial  proposition. 

The  proposition  on  which  the  subordinate  one  depends  is 
called  the  principal  proposition  or  clause  ;  as  H  When  spring 
comes,  the  Jlowers  will  bloomy 

An   entire  sentence,   consisting  of   a   principal   and   a 


128  ENGLISH     GRA  ffMAR. 

subordinate  clause,  is  called  a  complex  sentence  ,  as,  "  I  will 
remain  until  you  return." 

The  dependent  proposition,  consisting  of  the  connective 
and  the  subject  and  predicate  following  it,  constitutes  an  ele- 
ment or  component  part  of  the  complex  sentence.  It  is 
called  an  element  of  the  third  class,  to  distinguish  it  frcra 
those  of  the  other  two  classes. 

When  the  subordinate  clause  takes  the  place  of  a  noun, 
it  is  called  a  substantive  clause  ;  when  it  takes  the  place  ot 
an  adjective,  it  is  called  an  adjective  clause ;  when  it  takes 
the  place  of  an  adverb,  it  is  called  an  adverbial  clause. 


A.    SENTENCES  HAVING  A  SUBJECT  AND    PREDI- 
CATE  ONLY. 

A  sentence  may  have  for  its  subject,  or  for  the  attribute 
In  the  predicate,  a  dependent  proposition;  as,  "  That  the 
earth  revolves  on  its  axis  has  been  proved.'"  "  My  hope  ;s, 
that  you  will  recover  your  losses." 


EXERCISES. 

(1.)  (The  subject  a  substantive  clause.)  That  you  have  wronged  me 
doth  appear.  Who  wrote  Junius's  letters  is  uncertain.  Why  lie  left  the 
city  is  a  mystery.  "When  the  assembly  will  rise  is  unknown.  Where  the 
villain  has"  gone  has  been  ascerts  mod.  How  shall  we  escape?  is  the 
question. 

(2.)  (The  attribute  a  substantive  clause.)  My  desire  is,  that  you  may 
succeed.  His  pretence  was,  that  the  storm  of  the  preceding  evening  pre 
vented  his  attendance.  Our  hope  is,  that  no  such  results  will  follow. 
Your  belief  is,  that  the  enemy  has  crossed  the  mountain.  My  determina- 
tion is,  that  you  shall  attend  school  in  the  country. 

Fill  the  blanks  icith  appropriate  clauses  in  the  following  : — 

(3.)  (Subject  wanting.)    is  apparent.    cannot  be  denied 

is  desirable.     — is  deplorable.     is  determined.     ■ is 

believed.      is   amusing.      is  undesirable.     is  unac- 
countable. 

Note.  —  Let  the  learner  change  these  examples  and  those  in  Exercise 
(1.)  by  using  "it"  as  an  introductory  word  to  the  sentence,  placing  the 
subject  after  the  predicate,  thus :  "  It  doth  appear  that  you  have  wronged 
me." 


SYNTAX CLAUSES SUBJECT     MOI  /FI  ED.  129 

(4.)  {Attribute  wanting.)     My  determination  is .      His  decision 

was .     Her  complaint  was .     Our  hope  is .    Their  ex  • 

pectation  is .     The  remark  was .    The  suggestion  is 


B.    SUBJECT    MODIFIED. 

The  subject  may  be  modified,  — 
(1.)  By  a  single  subordinate  clause. 
(2.)  By  two  or  more  elements,  one  of  which  is  a  clause. 
We  haye  here,  as  before,  — 

Case  I.     Where   both  elements  are   added  directly  to  the. 
subject. 

Case  II.     Where  the  elements  are  added  together,  and  then 
added  to  the  subject,  forming  a  complex  adjective  element. 

Rem. — When  two  or  more  elements  are  added  together,  a  variety  of 
cases  may  occur.  The  basis  may  be  a  single  word  ;  this  may  be  modified 
by  a  phrase;  this  again  by  a  clause;  as,  "The  pear,  fruit /row  a  tree 
which  he  had  grafted,  was  found  most  delicious."  Some  seven  or  eight 
other  combinations  may  take  place.  These  can  easily  be  formed  by  chan- 
ging the  order  of  the  elements. 


EXERCISES. 

I.    Only  one  Added  Element. 

Point  out  the  adjective  clauses  in  the  following  examples :  — 
(1.)  {Added  element,  an  adjective  clause.)  Evils  which  cannot  be  cured, 
must  be  endured.  Rays  which  fall  perpendicularly  upon  the  earth,  are 
called  vertical.  Lines  which  are  drawn  parallel  to  each  other,  will  never 
moot.  Money  which  is  easily  acquired  is,  for  the  most  part,  easily  spent. 
Who  steals  my  purse,  steals  trash.  Whatever  is,  is  right.  Whoever  sins, 
must  sutfer. 

Transform  the  adjective  clauses  in  the  above  exercises. 

(2.)  {Adjective  element  transformed.)     Incurable  evils  must  be  endured. 
Rays  falling  t  &c. 


II.    Two  or  More  Added  Elements. 
Case  I.     Added  elements  joined  directly  to  the  subject. 

(3.)  {Adjective,  and  adjective  clause.)  That  lesson  which  caused  him  st 
much  trouble,  has  since  been  mastered.  The  missing  vessel,  which  he 
looked  for  so  anxiously,  has  at  last  arrived.  The  unwearied  pains  which 
*ie  took  to  accomplish  1  is  plans,  injured  their  success.     The  distant  land 


130  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

which,  lie  discovered,  was  rich  in  mineral  wealth.    The  bright  sun,  which 
foretells  warmer  weather,  comes  nearer  to  us  in  his  course.    The  parlor 
tire,  which  burns  so  brightly,  gives  a  cheerful  light. 
Transform  the  above  adjective  clauses. 

(4  )  (Adjective  clause  transformed.)    That  troublesome  lesson  has  since 
been  mastered,  &c. 

Convert  the  following  adjective  elements  in  Italics  into  clauses  :  — 
(5.)  (Adjective  element  tra?isformed.)  Trees  growing  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountain  lire  taller  than  those  on  the  summit.  A  persevering  man  will 
overcome  obstacles.  Thep?vmised  rewards  shall  be  given.  A  discontent' 
ed  man  cannot  be  happy.  The  great  globe  is  only  a  planet.  Milton,  the 
poet,  was  blind.  The  house  of  my  father  stands  near  the  road.  My 
brother's  dog  was  killed.    Honorable  men  presided. 

Fill  the  blanks  in  the  following  examples  with  adjective  clauses  :  — 

( 6.)  (Adjective  clause  wanting.)   The  journey was  delightful.    The 

opinion seems  to  prevail.     The  reason has  never  been  satis- 
factorily given.    The  man desires  to  please.     Cicero was  put 

to  death.     Socrates was  a  great  philosopher.     The  scholai  • 

should  be  commended.     The  pride is  contemptible.     A  man 

will  be  rewarded.     The  tabernacle contained  the  ark. 


Case  II.     Added  elements  joined  to  each  other* — complex 
adjective  element. 

Point  out  the  complex  adjective  element  in  the  following  examples,  and 
explain  its  parts  :  — 

(7.)  (The  basis  an  element  of  the  first  class.)  Thucydides,  living  when 
Pericles  did,  wrote  a  history  of  that  splendid  era.  Peter  the  Hermit,  who 
preached  the  first  crusade,  was  a  native  of  Amiens,  in  France.  The  phy- 
sician, knowing  that  his  advice  was  needed,  hastened  to  visit  his  patient. 
The  agent,  suspicious  that  all  was  not  right,  examined  the  matter  closely. 

(8.)  ( The  basis  an  element  of  the  second.)  The  reply  of  the  queen  who  came 
to  prove  the  wisdom  of  Solomon  was,  that  the  half  had  not  been  told  her. 
A  desire  to  dwell  where  her  mother-in-law  dwelt  induced  Ruth  to  follow 
Naomi.  The  hope  of  Esther,  who  was  the  beautiful  queen  of  Ahasuerus, 
was  to  save  the  Jewish  nation.  The  mother  of  Samuel,  who  was  devoted 
to  the  service  of  the  Lord,  brought  him  each  year  a  little  coat.  The  dreams 
of  Joseph,  who  was  the  favorite  son  of  Jacob,  were  the  occasion  of  much 
ill  will. 

(9.)  (One  of  the  first,  one  of  the  second,  and  one  of  the  third.)  The  bird, 
singing  on  the  tree  which  stands  in  the  garden,  fills  the  air  with  its  melody. 
The  boy,  eager  to  stand  where  he  could  witness  the  show,  fell  from  the  roof. 
The  plan,  changed  in  the  manner  which  we  have  described,  was  unsatisfac- 
tory to  the  architect.  The  friend,  coming  at  a  time  which  was  unexpected, 
was  cordially  received. 

(10.)  (Ttco  of  the  third.)  The  stream  which  flows  from  the  mountain 
range  that  bounds  the  valley  on  the  east,  takes  its  name  from  an  early 
custom  of  the  inhabitants.  JEneas,  who  resided  in  Troy  until  it  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Greeks,  is  said  to  have  sailed  to  Italy.  The  ten  command- 
ments, which  were  given  to  Moses  when  he  was  upon  the  mount,  were 
written  on  tables  of  stone.  Cecrops,  who  founded  Athens,  to  which  after- 
wards Solon  gave  laws,  is  said  to  h  we  been  an  Egyptian. 


SYNTAX CLAUSES PREDICA1E    MODIFIED.  131 

C.    PKEDICATE   MODIFIED. 
The  predicate  may  be  modified, — 

(1.)  By  a  single  element  of  the  third  class. 
(2.)  By  two  or  more  elements,  one  of  which  is  of  the  third  class. 
We  have  here,  as  before,  —  - 

Case  I.     Where  both   elements  are  added  directly  to  tht 
predicate. 

Case  II.     Where  they  are  added  together,  and  then  added 
to  the  pi  edicate. 

EXERCISES. 

I.    Only  one  Added  Element. 

Point  otd  the  complex  predicate  in  the  following  examples,  and  explain  ths 
effect  of  the  added  clause  :  — 

(1.)  {Substantive  clause  —  objective.)  Will  you  tell  why  you  are  sad? 
He  inquired,  "  Who  knocks  at  the  door  ?  "  Do  you  know  that  you  have 
injured  your  friend  ?  I  thought  that  he  was  sincere.  Many  suppose  that 
the  planets  are  inhabited.     lie  showed  me  wherein  I  had  done  wrong. 

Fill  the  following  blanks  xoith  substantive  clauses  in  the  objective  :  — 

(2.)  (Objective  clause  wanting.)    He  heard .    The  insane  imagine 

.     Who  said ?     You  may  explain .     The  Stoics  believe 

The  ancients  believed .     I  forgot .     I  wish 


He  announced .    The  good  ask .    The  farmer  declared . 

Transform  the  following  tcords  in  Italics  into  objective  clauses  :  — 

(3.)  (Object  transformed.)    I  do  not  remember  the  time  of  the  lecture. 

Show  the  manner  of  its  operation.     Will  you  tell  the  object  of  this  meeting  i 

We  asked  him  to  stay.     The  ancients  believed  the  earth  to  be  a  vast  plain. 

He  anticipated  a  pleasant  evening.    Did  you  hear  of  his  success  t    Tha 

general  commanded  the  army  to  be  in  readiness. 

Thus,  I  do  not  remember  when  the  lecture  will  take  place. 

(4.)  (Adverbial  clause  — place.)  Where  your  treasure  is,  there  will  youi 
heart  be  also.  Where  thou  goest,  I  will  go.  Whither  I  go,  ye  cannu* 
come.  As  iax  as  the  east  is  from  the  west,  so  far  hath  he  removed  oui 
transgressions  from  us.  They  were  sitting  where  the  branches  of  a  spread 
ing  elm  protected  them  from  the  burning  rays  of  the  noonday  sun. 

Fill  the  following  blanks  with  adverbial  clauses  denoting  place  :  — 

(").)  ( Adverbial  clause  wanting.)     , 'tis  haunted,  holy  ground.     I 

travelled .    ,  there  is  no  transgression.    nothing  can  be 

magnanimous.    The  soldier  stopped — ,    I  wall  go .     We  musl 

follow .     He  sank  to  repose . 


132  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

(6.)  (Adverbial  clans?  —  time.)  We  talked  earnestly,  as  we  were  walking 
together.  While  I  was  musing,  tha  fire  burned.  When  two  lines  cross 
each  other,  the  opposite  angles  are  equal.  The  truth  of  the  theorem  will 
be  acknowledged  when  you  have  proved  it.  I  will  write  until  he  returns. 
I  was  sad  when  I  thought  of  the  changes  that  must  come.  Whilst  1  live, 
I  will  bless  thy  name. 

Fill  the  following  blanlcs  with  clauses  denoting  time : — 

(7.)  (Adverbial  clause  wanting.)    You  may  go .    We  should  assist 

the  poor .     He  will  return .     I  understood  as  a  child . 

She  sits .     I  was  pained .     The  company  separated „ 

Supper  was  ready .    They  rejoiced . 

(8.)  (Adverbial  clause  —  cause.)  Ye  shall  not  see  me,  because  I  go  unto 
my  Father.  You  should  honor  your  parents,  for  this  is  the  command  of 
God.  Cultivate  agreeable  maimers,  since  these  make  you  attractive.  If 
you  will  read  the  report,  you  can  judge  for  yourself.  Should  he  stay 
late,  I  shall  regret  it.  I  have  brought  the  work,  that  you  may  see  it.  I 
went  myself,  that  1  might  ascertain  the  truth  We  should  take  exercise, 
that  we  may  be  healthy.  Though  it  was  cold,  the  walk  was  pleasant. 
Though  he  was  rich,  yet  for  our  sakes  he  became  poor.  I  love  him,  not- 
withstanding he  is  in  error. 

Fill  the  following  blanks  with  clauses  denoting  cause  :  — 

(9.)  (Adverbial  clause  wanting.)     The  children  sing  • .     Many  men 

live  idly .     He  is  a  useful  man .     Take  heed .     We  have 

uo  other  means .     Water  will  become  ice .     The  plants  mil 

not  grow — .     I  will  cut  down  this  tree .     Love  your  enemies 

— .     I  shall  stay  at  home .     I  shall  see  him .    Will  you 

answer  my  letter ?     How  old  would  he  have  been ? 

Note.  —  It  will  he  well  for  the  teacher  to  give  adverbial  clauses  of  different  kinds 
and  require  the  pupil  to  write,  or  give  orally,  a  suitable  principal  clause,  thus:  Give 
a  suitable  principal  clause  for  the  following:  "When  the  storm  has  subsided.' 
"  We  ahull  leave  when,"  &.c 

(10.)  (Adverbial  clause — manner.)  The  traveller  was  so  weary  that  he 
fell  asleep.  Speak  as  you  think.  You  may  do  as  you  said  you  should. 
Mary  is  as  old  as  her  cousin.  The  rose  is  more  beautiful  than  the  thistle. 
Happiness  is  more  equally  divided  than  some  suppose.  The  more  pru- 
dent one  is,  the  more  cautious  he  is.  Can  you  describe  the  scene,  as  she 
can  ?    Our  lesson  is  the  same  as  we  had  yesterday. 

Fill  the  following  blanks  :  — 

(11.)  (Adverbial  clause  wanting.)     As  a  man  thinketh .     Wili 

you  be  so  good ?    The  pupil  wrote  the  copy  just  as .    Make 

the  mark  just  as .    The  hour  seemed  so  long .    It  is  so  cold 

.     1  am  so  lonely .     This  apple  is  larger .    The  streai 

is  as  deep .    The  more  I  read  it . 


II.    Two  or  Moke  Added  Elements. 
Case  I.     Added  elements  joined  directly  to  the  predicate. 

(12.)  (Objective  element,  third  class,  adverbial  first  or  second.)  He  was 
soon  convinced  that  the  supposed  object  was  an  optical  illusion.  I  at  first 
believed  that  all  these  obj  sets  existed,  within  me.  During  this  moment  of 
darkness,  I  imag ned  thai  I  had  lost  the  greatest  part  of  my  being.     By 


SYNTAX CLAUSES —    PREDICATE  MODIFIED.  133 

this  exercise,  I  soon  learned  that  the  faculty  of  feeling  was  expanded  oyer 
every  part  of  my  frame. 

(13.)  (Adverbial  element,  third  class,  objective  element,  first  class.)  The 
nhepherd  gave  the  alarm  when  he  discovered  the  approach  of  the  wolf. 
He  closed  his  career  before  he  had  completed  his  thirty-sixth  year.  I  have 
brought  a  passage  that  you  may  explain  it.  He  visited  the  springr.  that 
he  might  improve  his  health.  He  would  pull  a  mote  out  of  his  brother's 
eye,  while  he  has  a  beam  in  his  own.  Place  the  package  where  it  will  not 
be  injured. 

(14.)  ( Two  adverbial  elements,  thirdclass.)  Although  it  was  very  incon- 
venient, he  came  to  see  me  when  he  was  requested  to  come.  Aj  he  passed 
cu  he  felt  his  strength  diminish  from  day  to  day,  though  his  suffering'} 
were  by  no  means  severe.  Had  he  reformed,  I  would  have  assisted  him, 
as  I  encouraged  him  to  hope.  If  he  can  arrange  his  affairs,  he  will  sail  for 
Europe  when  the  next  steamer  leaves. 

(15.)  (Tico  elements  of  the  thirdclass,  one  objective,  one  adverbial.)  If 
such  be  the  character  of  the  youthful  mind,  am  I  to  ask  you  what  must 
be  the  appearances  of  riper  years  ?  When  the  farmer  came  down  to  break 
fast  th;it  morning,  he  declared  that  his  watch  had  gained  half  an  hour  in 
the  night.  Although  he  had  labored  diligently,  he  found  that  his  efforts 
were  unavailing. 


Case  II.     Added  elements  joined  to  each  other  —  complex 
objective  and  complex  adverbial  elements. 

Note.  —  A  word  or  phrase  may  first  be  added  to  the  predicate,  and  a  clause  may  be 
added  to  either  of  these,  or  the  clause  may  be  added  directly  to  the  predicate,  and  a 
word  or  phrase  may  be  added  to  that.  Hut  it  is  generally  best  to  regard  a  modified 
proposition  as  a  simple  element,  unless  one  of  the  modifying  elements  is  itself  a  prop- 
position.  Thus,  m  the  following  sentence,  the  clause  in  Italics  may  be  regarded  as 
simple  :  "  We  knew  that  the  heavy  sturmmust  do  much  damage  to  the  harvest."  But  in 
:he  folkjwing  the  clause  in  Italics  is  complex  :  "  We  are  persuaded  that  the  work  will 
Advance  as  soon  as  all  obstacles  shall  have  been  removed." 

Point  out  the  complex  predicate,  and  tell  to  which  class  it  belongs. 

(1G.)  (Complex  objective  element,  basis  first.)  I  soon  perceived  the  fact 
that  the  study  of  geometrv  strengthened  my  reasoning  poweis,  so  that  I 
could  more  readily  trace  relations  of  cause  and  effect.  I  experienced  a  pleas- 
ure which  I  cannot  describe.  You  cannot  understand  the  view  which  I  take 
of  the  subject.  They  improved  the  opportunities  which  they  enjoyed. 
Celsius  invented  the  centigrade  thennometer,  which  is  considered  tb e  "best 
by  scientific  men. 

(17.)  {Complex  adverbial  element,  basis  second.)  He  was  saved  by 
ropes  which  were  thrown  from  the  ship.  The  bard  dwelt  on  those  high 
lands  which  overlook  the  sea.  Temptation  comes  at  the  time  in  which  we 
are  least  prepared  to  meet  it.  He  came  for  a  purpose  which  will  be  satis- 
factorily explained. 

Construct  examples  of  your  own,  illustrating  any  of  the  previous  element*, 
tnd  take  subjects  from  history  or  geography. 

12 


134  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 


D.     SUBJECT  AND   PREDICATE    MODIFIED 

The  subject  and  predicate  may  both  be  modified  by  sub 
ordinate  clauses. 

EXERCISES. 

Point  out  the  subordinate  clauses  in  the  following  examples,  and  tell  what 
they  modify :  — 

The  views  which  we  have  now  unfolded  show  that  a  vigorous  action  of  the 
Olind  is  dependent  upon  a  healthful  condition  of  the  physical  functions. 
The  letter  which  she  expected  came,  as  she  had  anticipated.  A  report 
that  the  enemy  had  capitulated  was  circulated  before  the  embankments 
were  completed. 

Add  subordinate  clauses  to  the  subject  and  predicate  of  each  of the  follow- 
ing sentences :  — 

He must  believe  .     Many were  journeying 

The  reason was  so  unsatisfactory .     Oranges are  found 

.      The  wicked will  be  punished .      The  pretensions 

convinced  us .     The  wind causes .     The  ques 

tion was   so  answered .      They shall  receive  . 

He will  learn .     Oxygen is  the  agent . 

Co7istruct  sentences  containing  either  substantive,  adjective,  or  adverbial 
clauses.  Sag  something  about  domestic  affairs  —  something  about  the  growth 
of  flmc&fi  —  something  about  the  cultivation  of  silk  —  something  about  geog- 
raphy—  relate  some  incident  in  the  life  of  Washington,  Franklin,  Richard 
I.,  Queen  Elizabeth,  or  write  about  any  other  subject  which  your  teacher  shall 
mention. 


SECTION  IV. 

COMPOUND  SENTENCES  — SIMILAR  PARTS  COM 
BINED. 

Note In  tlie  foreeoinjr  sections  the  parts  of  a  sentence  are  united  —  an  adjective,  a 

veib,  or  a  noun  to  a  noun  ;  a  noun  or  pronoun  to  a  verb  or  adjective  ;  an  adverb  to  a  verb, 
an  adjective, or  an  adverb  ;  and  the  relatione  in  Sections  I!,  and  III.  are  represented  by 
connectives,  while  in  Section  I.  the  same  relations  are  unrepresented,  being  indicated 
either  by  the  position  or  altered  form  oi  the  element  itself.  The  parta  united' are,  foi 
the  most  part,  different  parts  of  speech  —  d  liferent  in  the  functions  which  they  perform  , 
different  in  the  rank  which  they  hold,  one  being  principal,  and  the  other  subordinate 
to  it ;  and  often  different  in  form  or  class,  one  being  a  single  word,  another  a  phrase  or 
clause.  But  it  often  happens  that  we  wish  to  unite  two  elements  which  shall  be  the 
name  part  of  speech,  which  shall  stand  in  the  same  relation  to  some  other  element, 
which  shall  be  of  the  same  form  or  class,  and  perform  the  same  functions.  Such  e.le 
men  a  are  united  by  a  peculiar  class  of  conjunctions,  called  Coordinate  Conjunction*, 
(See  Conjunctions,  p.  104,)  because  they  join  parts  coordinate  with  each  other. 

Instead  of  parts,  one  of  which  depends  upon  and  modifies 
another,  we  may  u'rite  two  or  more  similar  elements,  bv 


SYNTAX — COORDINATE     ELEMENTS.  136 

placing  them  in  the  same  relations  to  some  other  element 
as,  "  Peter  and  John  went  up  to  the  temple." 

Hera  Peter  and  John  are  both  nouns,  both  used  as  subject,  and  both  in  the  same  re- 
lation to  the  predicate,  and  in  respect  to  eacli  other  they  are  placed  in  a  reiatica  of 
perfect  equality.     Hence  they  are  coordiiaw,  that  is,  in  the  same  rank. 

Two  cases  may  occur  — 

(1.)  The  coordinate  parts  may  be  either  of  the  five  elements  of  a  sen- 
tence, the  combination  being  called  a  compound  element ;  as,  "  She  reads 
and  writes." 

(2.)  The  coordinate  parts  may  be  entire  propositions,  the  combination 
being  a  compound  sentejiee ;  as,  "  Exalt  her,  and  she  shall  promote  the*.'' 


Case  I.     Coordinate  elements. 

EXERCISES. 

Point  out  the  compound  elements  in  the  following  examples,  and  fill  the 
blanks  wherever  elements  are  worsting  :  — 

( 1. )  ( Compound  subject,  first  class.)  Exercise  and  temperance  strengthen 
the  constitution.  Virtue  and  vice  form  a  strong  contrast  to  each  other. 
John  and  James  reside  at  home  this  summer.  The  rocks  and  hills  of  New 
England  will  remain  till  the  last  conflagration.  And  the  chief  priests  and 
scribes  stood  and  vehemently  accused  him. 

(2.)  (Compound  subject ,  second  class.)  To  be  or  not  to  be,  that  is  the  ques» 
tion.  To  soothe  thy  sickness,  and  to  watch  thy  health,  shall  be  my  pleasure. 
To  toil  for,  and  yet  to  lose,  the  reward  of  virtue,  is  the  hard  lot  of  man.  Tc 
deprive  me  of  liberty,  to  torture  me,  or  to  imprison  me,  is  not  your  right. 
To  live  temperately,  to  avoid  excitement,  and  to  take  alternate  exercise 
and  rest,  are  essential  to  health. 

(3.)  ( Compound  subject,  third  class.)  That  their  poetry  is  almost  uniform- 
ly mournful,  and  that  their  views  of  nature  were  dark  and  dreary,  will  be 
allowed  by  all  who  admit  the  authenticity  of  Ossian.  Why  we  are  thus  de- 
tained, or  why  we  receive  no  intelligence  from  home,  is  mysterious.  Where 
he  will  obtain  the  means,  and  how  he  will  be  relieved  from  the  pressure,  ia 
extremely  uncertain. 

(4.)  {One  component  part  wanting.)     Wit and  are  capti 

vating.     Eloquence  and are  gifts  of  nature.     Love  and min- 
gled in  the  regard  of  Helon's  eye.     Why ,  or  why ,  interest* 

mc  very  much.     That  the  book  will  be  successful,  and  that ,  will  be 

shown  by  its  extensive  circulation. 

(5.)  (Compound predicate,  relation  not  expressed.)  And  the  king  went 
up  to  the  chamber  over  the  gate,  and  wept.  No  fascinated  throng  weep, 
and  melt,  and  tremble  at  his  eloquence.  Approach,  and  behold,  while  I  lift 
from  his  sepulchre  its  covering. 

(5.)  (ComjMund  predicate,  relation exjyressed.)  The  present  life  is  net 
wholly  prosaic,*  precise,  tame,  and  finite.     This  is  per.ee,  and  the  true 

*  In  coordinate  constructions,  the  connective,  or  any  commrn  part,  Is  omitted  afta 
the  first  element.    (See  Ellipsis,  p.  193.) 


J  36  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

happiness  of  man.  He  is  willing  to  risk  his  life  in  its  defence,  and  is  con- 
ecious  that  he  gains  protection  while  he  gives  it.  J  can  be  contented  and 
fully  happy  in  the  good  which  I  possess. 

(7.)  (Compound  predicate,  third  class.)  My  proposition  is,  that  your  son 
shall  be  sent  to  college,  that  you  shall  go  abroad,  and  that  the  house  shall 
be  closed  during  your  absence.  His  direction  was,  that  the  patient  should 
take  a  great  deal  of  exercise,  that  his  diet  should  be  very  carefully  attend- 
ed to,  and  that  every  thing  of  an  exciting  nature  should  be  avoided.  His 
answer  was,  that  he  approved  the  plan  of  the  measure,  and  that  ho  was 
confident  of  its  success. 

(8.)  (Adjective  element,  compound, first  class.')  The  middle,  the  fairest, 
and  the  most  conspicuous  places  in  cities  are  chosen  for  the  erection  of 
statues  and  monuments.  Wise  and  good  men  are  frequently  unsuccessful. 
A  bright  and  glorious  prospect  is  opened  by  Christianity.  Lord  Corn 
wallis,  the  English  peer  and  general,  surrendered  at  the  battle  of  Yo'k- 
town. 

(9.)  (Adjective  element,  compound,  seco?id.)  The  parting  of  Hector  and 
Andromache  is  beautifully  described  by  Homer.  The  reign  of  William 
and  Mary  commenced  with  the  glorious  revolution  of  1688.  The  tops  of 
Olympus  and  Parnassus  reached  above  tbe  clouds.  The  grating  of  th<5 
old-fashioned  bars  and  bolts  was  answered  by  the  clash  of  chains. 

(10.)  (Adjective  element,  compound,  third.)  A  cottage  which  is  shaded  with 
trees,  and  which  is  situated  far  from  the  noise  and  bustle  of  the  city,  is  a 
very  pleasant  retreat.  That  faith  which  is  one,  which  renews  and  justi- 
fies all  who  possess  it,  which  confessions  and  formularies  can  never  ade- 
quately express,  is  the  property  of  all  alike.  The  baron,  who  knows  our 
manners,  and  lives  near  our  country,  will  apprise  you  of  the  time  and 
means  to  be  their  protector. 

(11.)    (Adjective  element  wanting.)      A  and  behavior 

makes  a  person  contemptible.     Her and hands  helped  to  bar 

the  door  against  want.     Every or thought  is 

a  violation  of  our  obligation  to  our  Maker.     A and influence 

breathes  around  the  dwellings  of  the  dead.     The  artist  who ,  and 

,  is  coming  to  reside  in  the  city. 

(12.)  (Compound  objective  element,  first  class.)  And  he  said,  Behold  my 
mother  and  my  brethren.  1  examined  its  form  and  its  color.  I  note  his 
dress,  the  sound  of  his  voice,  and  the  turn  of  his  countenance.  Pope  wrott 
the  Messiah,  and  the  Essay  on  Criticism. 

(13.)  (Compound  objective  element,  second.)  It  teaches  us  tc  be  thankful 
for  all  favors  received,  to  love  each  other,  and  to  be  united.  He  chooses 
to  die,  and  to  redeem  his  friend.  She  is  led  to  engage  in  calmer  pursuits, 
and  seek  for  gentler  employment. 

(14.)  (Compound  objective  element,  third.)  He  heard  that  his  wife  had 
fallen  a  lingering  sacrifice  to  penury  and  sorrow ;  that  his  children  were 
gone  to  seek  their  fortunes  in  distant  or  unknown  climes  ;  and  that  the 
grave  contained  his  nearest  and  most  valuable  friends.  He  found  that 
every  thing  was  changed,  that  strangers  inhabited  the  home  of  his  child- 
hood, and  that  he  was  alone  in  the  world.  I  know  that  the  eye  of  the 
public  is  upon  me,  and  that  I  shall  be  held  responsible  for  every  act. 

(15.)  (One  objective  element  wanting.)    I  have  neither  wit,  nor ,  nor 

■  It  gave  him  the  manners  and of  the  most  perfect  gentle- 
man.    The  warm  sunny  days  will  cause  the  grass  to  grow,  and .     He 

'ound  that  the  lecture  was  postponed,  and . 

(16.)  (Adverbial  element,  compound.)    How  bright  and  goodly  shines  the 


SYNTAX  —  COORDINATE  CLAUSES.  137 

aaoon !     When  and  where  he  lived,  I  cannot  tell  you.     The  voice  of  the 
preacher  grew  fainter  and  fainter. 

(17.)  {Co7tipound  adverbial  element,  second.)  With  trembli  .g  limbs  and 
faltering  steps,  he  departed  from  his  mansion  of  sorrow.  I  have  spent  n.y 
days,  in  darkness  and  error.  I  see  new  meaning,  every  hour,  in  his  arch  eye 
and  speaking  face.  With  surprise  and  joy,  she  espied  a  monk  support- 
ing Marmion's  head. 

(18.)  {Compound  adverbial  element,  third.)  When  a  few  more  friend* 
have  left,  a  few  more  hopes  deceived,  and  a  few  more  changes  mocked  us,; 
we  shall  be  brought  to  the  grave,  and  shall  remain  in  the  tomb.  He  takej 
us  from  earth  that  he  may  lead  us  to  heaven,  that  he  may  refine  our  nature 
from  all  its  principles  of  corruption,  that  he  may  share  with  us  his  own 
immortality,  that  he  may  admit  us  to  his  everlasting  habitation,  and  thai 
he  may  crown  us  with  his  eternity. 

(19.)  ( One  adverbial  element  wanting.)  She  studied  diligently  and . 

The  great  Scipio  treated  his  captives  with  magnanimity  and .     How- 

ird  spent  his  life  in  relieving  the  distressed, ,  and .     Every 

•jne  rejoices  when  spring  comes, ,  and .     She  will  return  be- 
fore we  expect  her,  and  . 

(20.)  {Elements  both  complex  and  compound.)  To  carry  on  with  effect 
an  expensive  war,  and  yet  be  frugal  of  the  public  money  ;  to  oblige  those 
to  serve  whom  it  may  be  delicate  to  offend ;  to  conduct,  at  the  same  time, 
i complicated  variety  of  operations;  to  concert  measures  at  home,  answer- 
able to  the  state  of  things  abroad;  and  to  gain  every  valuable  enu  m 
»pite  of  opposition  from  the  envious  and  disaffected,  —  this  is  more  difficult 
u.han  is  generally  thought. 


Case  II.     Coordinate  clauses. 

(21. J  {Copulative  clauses.)  I  was  hungry,  and  ye  gave  me  no  meat. 
"Green  is  the  most  refreshing  color  to  the  eye  ;  hence  Providence  has  made 
It  the  common  dress  of  nature.  It  is  sown  a  natural  body,  it  is  raised  a 
spiritual  body.  Not  only  am  I  instructed  by  this  exercise,  but  I  am  also 
invigorated.  I  was  eyes  to  the  blind,  and  feet  was  I  to  the  lame.  We 
shall  feel  the  same  revolution  of  seasons,  and  the  same  sun  and  moon  will 
guide  the  course  of  our  year.  You  know  I  love  a  country  life,  and  here 
we  have  it  in  perfection.  Submission  and  obedience  are  the  lessons  of  her 
life,  and  peace  and  happiness  her  reward. 

(22.)  {Adversative  clmises.)  She  took  them,  but  she  could  not  tear  them 
from  me.  The  man  was  communicative  enough,  but  nothing  was  distinct 
in  his  mind.  We  must  not  expect  that  our  roses  will  grow  without  thorns ; 
but  then  they  are  useful  and  instructive  thorns,  which,  by  pricking  the 
fingers  of  the  too  hasty  plucker,  teach  future  caution.  The  tunes  are  ex- 
tremely gay  and  lively,  yet  they  have  something  in  them  wonderfully 
soft.  I  believe  there  are  few  heads  capable  of  making  Sir  Isaac  Newton'8 
calculations,  but  the  result  of  them  is  not  difficult  to  be  understood  by  a 
moderate  capacity. 

(23)  {Alternative  clmises.)  Never  utter  any  profane  speeches,  nor  make 
a  jest  of  any  Scripture  expressions.  Learn  your  lesson,  otherwise  you  must 
tose  your  rank.  I  neither  learned  wisdom,  nor  have  I  a  knowledge  of  the 
holy.  Either  he  will  hate  the  one,  and  love  the  other,  or  else  he  will 
hold  to  the  one,  and  despise  the  other.  Neither  hath  this  man  sinned, 
tor  his  parents. 

(24.)  {Compound  setxtemes  with  complex  tnembers.)    When  he  rose  ererj 
12* 


l68  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

sound  was  hushed,  and  when  he  spoke  every  eye  was  fixed  upon  him.  If 
the  means  were  in  themselves  bad.  you  would  not  say  that  the  end  justi- 
fied them ;  or  if  the  means  were  good,  you  would  not  sf.y  that  they  justified 
all  the  results  which  might  flow  from  their  use.  You  take  my  house,  when 
vou  do  take  the  prop  that  doth  sustain  my  house  ;  you  take  my  life,  when 
you  do  take  the  means  whereby  I  live.  Employ  thy  time  well,  if  thou 
meanest  to  gain  leisure ;  and  since  thou  art  not  sure  of  a  minute,  throw 
not  away  an  hour.  If  you  would  have  your  business  done,  go  j  if  not, 
send. 


ELEMENTS. 

Note.  —  A  careful  examination  of  the  preceding  sections,  with  a  proper  attention  to 
each  construction,  will  prepare  the  learner  for  the  distinctions  here  to  be  made.  Each 
definition  should  be  verified  by  a  reference  to  the  section  and  exercise  which  illus- 
trates it 

An  element  is  an  expression  which  represents  an  idea 
and  its  relation  ;  as,  "  He walked in  the  gar- 
den." 

Rem.  —  An  element  of  a  sentence  is  either  the  subject  or  predicate,  or 
some  nart  immediately  connected  with  one  of  these.  Every  remote  ele- 
mer.o,  that  is,  one  not  immediately  connected  with  the  subject  or  predicate, 
is  to   be  regarded  as  a  component  part  of    a   complex   element  of  the 

sentence ;  as,  "  He walked in  the  garden  of  the  prince."     Here, 

of  the  prince  is  a  remote  element,  dependent  immediately  on  garden, 
and  is  a  component  part  of  the  complex  element,  in  the  garden  of  the 
prince. 

CLASSES  OF  ELEMENTS. 
Elements  may  take  three  different  forms,  called  the  first, 


(1.)  When  the  relation  and  idea  are  both  represented  by  one  word,  with- 
out a  connective,  we  have  an  element  of  the  first  class ;  as,  "  John  — — 
writes." 

(2.)  When  the  relation  is  expressed  by  one  word,  and  the  idea  by  anoth- 
er, forming  a  phrase  consisting  of  a  preposition  and  its  object,  or  an  infini- 
tive, we  have  an  element  of  "the  second  class ;  as,  "  John  lives in 

hope."     "  He  desires to  improve." 

(5.)  When  the  relation  is  represented  by  one  word,  and  the  idea  or 
thought  by  a  proposition,  forming  a  clause  consisting  of  a  connective,  a 
subject,  and  a  predicate,  we  have  an  element  of  the  third  class;  as,  "I 
know  —  that  he  told  me  the  truth." 


EXERCISES. 

Point  out  the  elements  in  the  following  sentences,  and  tell  to  what  class 
they  belong :  — 

On  a  sunny  bank  buttercups  are  bright.  The  trees  are  leafless.  Tha 
gath  ering  darkness  of  night  comes  on.  A  life  of  prayer  is  the  life  of  heaven. 
Thy  brother  shall  rise  again.     The  ransomed  shout  to  their  glorious  King, 


SYNTAX ELEMENTS,  PRINCIPAL  AND  SUBORDINATE.       139 

where  no  sorrow  shades  the  soul  as  they  sing.  The  darkness  waved  wider 
its  sable  wings.  With  these  words  I  quitted  him.  She  appears  to  know 
every  tiling.     Swans  sing  before  they  die. 

The  elements,  according  to  their  rank  in  construction,  are 
either  principal  or  subordinate. 

A  principal  element  is  one  on  which  others  depend  ;  as, 
"  A  good  man  honors  any  calling." 

Here,  man  and  honors  are  principal  elements. 

A  subordinate  element  is  one  which  depends  upon  a 
principal. 

A,  good,  calling,  and  any,  in  the  above  example,  are  subordinate  elements. 

The  principal  elements  are  the  subject  and  the  predicate , 
as,  "  Time  flies." 

Rem.  1.  —  The  subject  naturally  takes  the  first  rank,  and  is  the  only 
element  which  is,  strictly  speaking,  independent.  The  predicate,  being  an 
attribute  of  the  subject,  is  naturally  dependent  upon  it,  borrowing  its 
number,  2>erson,  and  case,  and  in  some  languages  its  gender  also,  directly 
from  the  subject.  Yet  in  the  construction  of  a  proposition,  there  is  a  mu- 
tual dependence ;  there  can  be  no  subject  without  a  predicate,  and  no  predi- 
cate without  a  subject,  and  no  sentence  without  both.  Hence  they  may 
well  be  called  principal  elements,  although  there  is  in  the  nature  of  things 
a  dependence  of  the  one  upon  the  other. 

Rem.  2. —  The  subject  may  be  known  by  its  answering  the  questions, 
Who?  or  What?  with  the  predicate;  as,  Who  wrote?  Ans.  "Frank 
wr»te."     What  was  written  ?     Ans.  "  A  letter  was  written." 

Rem.  3.  —  The  subject  may  be, — 

(1.)  A  noun  ox  pronoun;  as,  "  Angels  appeared."     "J7ewept." 

(2.)  The  adjective  or  participle  used  as,  a  noun;  as,  "The  wise  protect 

themselves."     "  The  persevering  will  conquer." 
(3.)  Any  word,  syllable,  or  letter,  used  as  a  noun ;  as,  "  Is  is  a  verb  " 

"  A  is  a  vowel."     "  Re  is  a  prefix." 

(4.)  An  infinitive;  as,  "  To  labor  is  to  exert  ourselves." 

(5.)  A  proposition  ;  as,  "  That  this  story  is  true,  is  very  evident." 

R  >3M.  4.  —  The  predicate  may  be  known  by  its  answering  the  question, 

What  is  said  of ?     What dc,  or  doing?  as,  What  is  said  of 

the  water?  Ans.  "  The  water  is  clear."  What  is  George  doing?  Ans* 
*'  George  is  reading." 

Rem.  5.  —  The  predicate  consists  essentially  of  two  parts  —  the  copula 
and  attribute;  as,  ".The  ocean  is  deep." 

Rem.  6.  —  The  copula  is  some  modification  of  the  verb  to  be,  {am,  %», 
was,  were,  &c.) 

Rem.  7.  —  The  attribute  may  be,  — 

(1.)  A  participle  ;  as,  "I  am  walking."     "  He  is  loved." 

(2.)  An  adjective ;  as,  "  The  moon  is  pale." 

(3.)  A  noun  or  protwun  ;  as  "  Gold  is  a  metal."      '  I  am  He." 


140  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

(4.)  An  infinitive  or  phrase  ;  as,  "  He  is  to  sail."  "  George  is  to  ie  edu 
tated"     "  Ihey  are  without  money.''' 

(5.)  A  subordinate  proposition ;  as,  M  My  intention  is,  that  t  \e  whole 
\eork  shall  be  completed  before  the  appointed  time." 

Rem.  8.  —  When  both  parts  are  blended,  the  word  which  represents 
them  is  always  a  verb  ;  as,  "  He  is  walking  "  =  He  walks. 

The  subordinate  elements  are  the  adjective  element,  the  ob- 
jective element,  and  the  adverbial  element ;  as,  "  The  good 
man  performs  his  duty  faithfully ." 

Rem.  1.  —  The  adjective  element  may  be  known  by  its  being  connected 
with  a  noun  or  pronoun,  without  an  assertion,  and  by  its  answering  tbe 
questions  What  ?  Wliat  kind  off  How  many  f  Whose  ?  Of  what  ? 
Which?  as,  What  kind  of  hat?    Ans.  "  A  black  hat." 

Rem.  2.  —  An  adjective  element,  when  both  the  relation  and  idea  are 
expressed  by  one  word,  is  either  an  adjective  or  a  substantive.  When  the 
relation  and  idea  are  expressed  separately,  it  is  either  a  phrase,  consisting 
of  a  preposition  and  object,  or  an  infinitive,  or  a  subordinate  proposition. 

Rem.  3.  —  The  objective  element  may  be  known  by  its  being  connected 
with  a  transitive  verb,  and  by  its  answering  the  questions  What  or  Whom? 
as,  What  has  he  brought  ?  Ans.  "  He  has  brought  an  orange."  Whom 
do  you  see  ?     Ans.  "  I  see  David." 

Rem.  4.  —  The  objective  element,  when  both  the  relation  and  the  idea 
are  expressed  by  one  word,  is  a  noun  or  proiwun.  When  the  relation  and 
idea  are  expressed  separately,  it  is  either  an  infinitive  or  a  subordinate 
proposition. 

Rem.  5.  —  The  adverbial  element  may  be  known  by  its  answering  the 
questions  Where?  When?  Why?  How?  with  a  verb,  adjective,  or  ad- 
verb ;  as,  How  does  she  play  ?    A?is.  "  She  plays  correctly." 

Rem.  6.  —  The  adverbial  element,  when  both  the  relation  and  idea  are 
expressed  by  one  word,  is  an  adverb.  When  the  relation  and  idea  are 
expressed  separately,  it  is  a  preposition  and  object,  or  a  subordinate  prop- 
osition. 

EXERCISE. 

Poi?it  out  the  different  elements  in  the  following  sentences  :  — 
The  flowers  of  the  meadow  she  plucks  no  longer.  He  was  not  clad  in 
costly  raiment.  Such  was  the  state  of  Eden  when  the  serpent  entered 
its  bowers.  Our  life  is  compared  to  a  falling  leaf.  He  who  has  tamed  the 
elements  shall  not  live  the  slave  of  his  own  passions.  We  love  liberty. 
The  crow,  which  had  found  the  cheese,  signified  her  joy  with  a  loud  voice 
Ariovistus  replied  that  he  had  crossed  the  Rhine,  not  by  his  own  will,  but 
entreated  and  hired  by  the  Gauls.  The  boy  begged  that  they  would  come 
to  his  assistance. 

Aside  from  connectives,  the  elements,  in  regard  to  their 
nature,  are  either  substantive,  adjective,  or  adverbial. 

Rem. —  This  classification  supposes  the  pure  verb  (copula)  to  be  only  a 
oennective,  and  whatever  is  united  o  •  blended  with  this  verb,  making  \i  a 
mixed  voxb,  to  be  of  the  nature  of  an  adjective 


SYNTAX — ELEMENTS,     SIMPLE,    COMPLEX,     ETC.        141 

We  have,  therefore,  — 

(1.)  Substantive  words,  phrases,  or  clauses ;  as,  man,  to  sing,  that  he 

ould  be  detected. 

(2.)  Adjective  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  ;  as,  wise  man,  a  man  of  vsu- 
ttom,  a  man  icho  is  wise. 

(3.)  Adverbial  tcords,  phrases,  or  clauses  ;  as,  rising  early,  rising  at  tun- 
rise,  rising  before  tlie  sun  rises. 


EXERCISE. 

Point  out  the  substantive,  adjective,  and  adverbial  elements,  and  tell  wheth* 
er  they  are  words,  phrases,  or  clauses. 

We  went  to  ride  in  the  early  morning.  The  beautiful  rose  bears  the 
name  of  the  "  Cloth  of  Gold."  The  invitation  was  accepted  with  great 
pleasure.  He  labored  diligently  to  complete  the  work.  It  is  easy  to  main- 
tain authority  where  it  is  once  established.  He  was  a  youth  full  of  prom- 
ise. They  mourned  his  untimely  death.  Shonstnne  wrote  the  "  Village 
Schoolmistress,"  to  immortalize  the  teacher  of  his  boyhood.  He  improved 
rapidly  under  the  tuition  of  so  distinguished  a  teacher.  He  thought  that 
she  would  do  much  good.  The  adage,  "  Knowledge  is  Power,"  is  verified 
by  experience. 

Elements,  in  regard  to  their  state  or  condition,  may  be  sim- 
ple, complex,  or  compound. 

A  simple  element  is  a  single  expression  for  an  idea  and 
its  relation,  without  modification  or  addition ;  as,  "  We  left 

early."      "  We  left at  dawn."     "  We  left 

as  day  dawned." 

A  complex  element  is  a  simple  element  modified  by  another 

element  subordinate  to  it ;  as,  "  We  left very  early." 

M  We  left at  early  dawn."     **  We  left as  the  day 

first  dawned  in  the  east." 

Rem. — So  a  complex  sentence  is  a  simple  sentence  modified  by 
another  sentence  subordinate  to  it;  as,  "I  perceived  that  the  party  h&d 
separated." 

A  compound  element  is  a  combination  of  two  or  more 
coordinate   simple  or  complex  elements. ;    as,   "  We   work 

-early   and  late."      "We   are   employed in   the 

morning,  at  noon,  and  at  night."     '  We   were  travelling 
when  the  wind  was  blowing,  and  when  the  storm  was 
heating  against  our  carriage." 

Rem.  —  So  a  compound  sentence  is  the  combination  of  two  or  mow 
simple  or  complex  sentences;  as,  "He  that  trusteth  in  his  riches  snal' 
fall;  but  the  righteous  shall  flourish  as  a  branch." 


142  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR, 


EXERCISE. 


Point  out  the  simple,  complex,  and  compound  elements  in  the  following  ;—> 

"  How  have  you  secured  this  good  order  ?  "  said  we  to  the  teacher.  In 
early  childhood,  the  conscience  is  most  active.  During  three  years,  he 
made  surprising  progress  in  useful  knowledge.  Peace,  tranquillity,  and 
innocence  shed  their  mingled  delights  around  him.  Every  door,  and  por- 
tal, and  avenue  is  thrown  open.  He  thinks  not  of  duty,  or  of  future  use- 
fulness. When  the  poor  aud  needy  seek  water,  and  there  is  none,  and 
their  tongue  faileth  for  thirst,  I,  the  Lord  will  hear  them,  I,  the  God  o! 
larael,  will  not  forsake  them 


KELATION  OF  ELEMENTS. 

All  ele  nents  or  parts  of  a  sentence,  are  united  in  one  or 
the  other  of  two  general  relations  —  a  relation  of  equality, 
or  a  relation  of  dependence. 

The  former  subsists  between  coordinate  elements  ;  the 
latter  between  a  subordinate  element  and  its  principal ;  as, 
"  The  sun  and  the  moon  stood  still." 

When  an  element  is  brought  into  a  coordinate  relation 
with  another,  the  former  has  no  control  over  the  latter ;  but 
when  an  element  is  placed  in  a  subordinate  relation  to  anoth- 
er, the  latter,  as  principal,  often  controls  the  case,  mode, 
tense,  number,  or  person  of  the  former,  regarded  as  its  sub 
ordinate. 

When  the  influence  of  the  principal  element  is  such  as  to 
cause  the  subordinate  to  take  its  own  modifications,  (number, 
person,  case,)  the  latter  is  said  to  agree  with  the  former  • 
when  the  subordinate  element  is  made  to  take  a  certain  form, 
as  the  possessive  or  objective  case,  it  is  said  to  be  governed 
by  the  principal,  or  by  the  word  which  shows  the  dependent 
relation,  as  the  preposition,  for  example. 

Rem.  1.  —  The  relation  between  the  subject  and  predicate  is  called  the 
predicate  relation,  (See  Rem.  1.  p.  139  ;)  that  of  the  noun  and  the  adjec- 
tive element  is  called  the  adjective  or  attributive  relation  ;  that  of  the 
objective  element  and  the  transitive  verb  is  called  the  objective  relation; 
and  that  of  the  adverbial  element  and  the  verb,  adjective,  or  adverb,  is 
tailed  the  adverbial  relation.  The  last  three  arc  always  dependent 
relations. 

Rem.  2.  — Any  element  in  a    ubordinate  relation  may  h^ve  auothei  in 


SYNTAX RELATIONS.  143 

the  sarce  subordinate  relation  joined  to  it  co5rdinateiy  ;  as,  "  A  good  and 
faithful  servant. " 

.Relations  may  be  either  represented  or  unrepresented , 
as,  "  The  Doy  was  running  with  rapidity  "  =r  The  boy  ran 
rapidly. 

Hem.  —  In  elements  of  the  first  class,  the  dependent  relations  are  a] 
ways  unrepresented.  (See  "  Construction,"  Sec.  I.)  In  thoso  of  the  set 
ond  class,  the  dependeit  relations  are  expressed  by  appropriate  connec 
tives,  called. prepositions.  (See  "  Construction,"  Sec.  II.)  And  in  those  of 
the  third  class,  the  dependent  relations  are  expressed  by  conjunctive  words 
called  subordinate  connectives.  (See  "  Construction,"  Sec.  III.)  Coordi- 
nate relations  are  always  expressed  by  a  class  of  connectives  called  coQrdv- 
nate  conjunctions.     (See  "  Construction,"  Sec.  IV.) 


EXERCISES. 

In  the  following  sentences,  point  out  the  different  relations  ;  tell  whether 
they  are  represented  or  unrepresented :  — 

The  pope  went  to  Paris  to  crown  the  emperor.  If  it  should  storm, 
the  lecture  will  be  postponed.  The  latest  intelligence  was  repoited 
by  the  telegraph.  I  do  not  fancy  the  picture.  \Ve  hear  of  several 
removals  in  the  different  departments.  The  president's  levee  was 
thronged,  and  was  a  very  brilliant  affair.  The  statement  that  the  treaty 
was  concluded,  was  a  mistake.  He  only  asks  their  sympathies.  Let  agri- 
culture clotha  our  vast  wastes  with  waving  plenty.  I  wish  to  speak  with 
some  reserve  upon  this  subject.  Providence  has  placed  us  between  the  two 
great  world  oceans,  and  we  shall  always  be  a  maritime  power  of  the  first 
order. 

In  the  following  sentences,  trace  the  relation  of  the  last  word  back  to  the 
subject,  describing  each  as  you  pass  :  — 

It  was  not  thus  with  the  places  I  visited  during  the  short  space  of  cessa- 
tion from  task  and  toil  that  the  week  allowed.  I  have  lately  traversed  my 
native  village  without  discovering  one  familiar  face.  Our  early  recollec- 
tions are  pleasing  to  us  because  they  look  not  on  the  morrow. 

Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  I  will  simply  say  that  the  story  I  am  about  to 
relate  has  its  foundation  in  an  old  legend  of  the  first  settlers  of  the  coun- 
try," country  is  a  subordinate  element,  related  to  settlers  by  means  of  of, 
settlers  is  an  element  subordinate  to  legend,  and  having  its  relation  repre- 
sented by  of;  legend  is  subordinate  to  foundation  —  its  relation  is  rep- 
resented "by" in;  foundation  is  related  subordinately  to  has  —  its  relation 
is  unrepresented;  has  is  related  to  story  ;  they  are  mutually  dependent 
apon  each  other  —  relation  unrepresented.  Combined  as  a  proposition, 
the)  are  related  subordinately  to  will  say,  by  that,  and  will  say  is  related 
to  /,  winch  stands  as  the  subject  of  the  sentence. 

Reverse  the  order,  and  trace  the  relation  of  the  subject  down  thrt  ugh  th* 
predicate  to  the  remotest  term. 

Any  te>  m  being  given,  state,  in  connection  wUh  it,  its  antecedent,  or  prin 
>ipal  term.  Thus,  in  the  sentence  above, '  country  "  being  given,  sat 
4  Settlers  of  the  country." 


144  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

ENTIRE   SENTENCES. 

A  sentence,  considered  as  an  entire  structure,  either  <&> 
dares  something^  asks  a  question,  expresses  a  command,  <?i 
contains  an  exclamation. 

A  declarative  sentence  is  one  which  declares  something; 
as?  "  The  truth  will  prevail." 

An  interrogative  sentence  is  one  which  asks  a  question  3 
as,  u  Wilt  thou  be  made  whole  ?  " 

An  imperative  sentence  is  one  which  expresses  a  com 
mand  ;  as,  "  Put  up  thy  sword  into  its  sheath.1' 

An  exclamatory  sentence  is  one  which  contains  an  ex* 
clamation  ;  as,  "  How  art  thou  fallen  !  " 

EXERCISES. 

Point  out  the  different  kinds  of  sentences  in  the  folloioing :  — 

I  heard  their  drowning  cry  mingling  with  the  wind.  And  has  it  come 
to  this  ?  The  stores  of  his  mind  were  inexhaustible.  Give  it  here,  my 
honest  fellow.  Think  on  my  chains  !  I  will  paint  the  death  dew  on  his 
brow  !  Is  any  sick  among  you  ?  Stands  Scotland  in  its  place  ?  Why 
weeps  the  Muse  of  England  ?  Over  these  matchless  talents  Probity  threw 
her  brightest  lustre.  Let  him  not  faint.  Screen  not  a  traitor  from  the 
law.  The  starless  grave  shall  shine  the  portal  of  eternal  day !  Sin  not 
against  thy  God  !  When  will  you  finish  my  picture  ?  Thou  wouldst  net 
have  me  make  a  trial  of  my  skill  upon  my  child  ! 

INTERROGATIVE   SENTENCES. 

An  interrogative  sentence  relates  either  to  the  whole  or  a 
part  of  a  corresponding  declarative  sentence,  called  the  an- 
swer, or  responsive ;  as,  "  Whom  did  you  see  ?  "  Ans. 
John  ;  that  is,  "  I  saw  John."  "  Did  you  see  John  ?  "  Yes 
=  I  did  see  John. 

Interrogative  sentences  are  of  two  kinds  —  direct  and 
indirect. 

A  direct  interrogative  refers  to  the  whole  of  the  sentence 
which  answers  the  question,  and  is  always  introduced  by  a 
verb  or  its  auxiliary  ;  as,  "  Did  you  see  John  ?  "  Yes  =  I 
did  see  John. 


SYNTAX TRANSFORMATION.  145 

Rem  —  Direct  interrogative  sentences  are  answered  by  yes  or  «o.  When 
ottered,  they  end  with  the  rising  inflection. 

An  indirect  interrogative  sentence  always  refers  to  some 
part  or  element  of  the  sentence  which  arfswers  the  question, 
Rnd  is  always  introduced  by  some  interrogative  word,  which 
corresponds  with  the  element  inquired  for ;  as,  Who  came  ? 
John  came.  When  did  he  come  ?  He  came  in  the  morn* 
ing.     Which  pen  have  you  ?     I  have  the  gold  pen. 

Rem.  1.  —  Indirect  interrogative  sentences  cannot  be  answered  by  jftfff 
or  no.    They  commonly  end  with  the  falling  inflection. 

.Rem.  2.  —  The  interrogative  is  of  the  nature  of  the  substantive,  adjec- 
tive, or  adverb,  to  correspond  to  the  element  inquired  for. 

Rem.  3.  —  Indirect  questions  are  commonly  answered  elliptically  by  in 
troducing  simply  the  element  referred  to,  the  rest  of  the  answer  being 
borrowed  from  the  question;  as,  "  Where  do  you  live  ? "  "In  Smith- 
field  "  =  I  live  in  Smithfield. 


EXERCISES. 

Point  9ut  the  direct  and  indirect  interrogative  sentences  in  the  following 
examples  ;  in  the  indirect,  tell  which  element  is  inquired  for  ;  — 

Why  could  not  we  cast  him  out  ?  Believe  ye  that  I  am  able  to  do  this  ? 
Whose  is  this  image  and  superscription  ?  Am  I  to  forgive  if  he  will  not 
repent  ?  When  can  you  hope  for  another,  if  this  be  neglected  ?  Hast 
thou  seen  the  doors  of  the  shadow  of  death  ?  Do  all  speak  with  tongues  ? 
Why  do  I  suffer  so  many  sorrows  ?  Will  you  suffer  your  glory  to  be  sul- 
lied? Who  can  estimate  the  influence  of  the  Sabbath  school  ?  At  what 
time  this  evening  will  the  moon  rise  ?  Am  I  my  brother's  keeper  ?  Have 
f  11  the  gifts  of  healing  ?  Why,  what  evil  hath  he  done  ?  Shall  the  Turk 
still  pollute  the  soil  sanctified  by  the  brightest  genius  ? 


TRANSFORMATION  OF  SENTENCES. 

Whenever  a  sentence  undergoes  a  change,  either  by  alter- 
ing, suppressing,  or  transposing  any  of  its  parts,  it  is  said 
to  be  transformed ;  as,  "  After  he  had  discovered  Hispaniola, 
Columbus  returned  to  Spain "  =  Having  discovered  His- 
jwniola,  Columbus  returned  to  Spain  ==  Columbus  returned 
to  Spain,  after  he  had  discovered  Hispaniola. 

I.    Altered  Constructions. 

We  may  alter  the  forms  of  a  sentence,  or  of  an  element, 
in  the  following  cases  :  — 
(I.'  We  may  use  the  active  for  the  passive  voice,  or  the  passive  for  the 
13 


146  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

active  ;  aa,  "  Columbus  discovered  America  "  —  America  was  discovered  by 
Columbus. 

(2.)  We  may  change  an  clement  of  the  first  class  to  one  of  the  second, 
or  one  of  the  second  to  one  of  the  first;  as.  '  A  morning  ride  is  refresh 
ing  "  =  A  ride  in  the  morning  is  refreshing. 

(3.)  A  complex  sentence  maybe  changed  to  a  simple  sentence  (or  a  con> 
traded  complex)  by  abridging  its  subordina  e  clause ;  as,  "  When  the 
shower  had  passed,  we  resumed  our  journey  "  —  The  shower  having  passed 
we  resumed  our  journey. 

Rem. —  A  proposition  is  abridged  by  changing  the  predicate  to  a  parti- 
ciple, or  an  infinitive;  as,  "  The  winds  bloio  =  Thc  winds  blowing  or  to 
blow.  The  predicate  relation  is  destroyed,  and  the  attribute  is  placed  in  an 
adjective  relation  to  the  subject.  For"  the  mr  .hod  of  disposing  of  the  sub- 
ject in  such  constructions,  see  Abridged  Propositions,  page  185. 

(4.)  A  simple  sentence  may  be  changed  to  a  complex  by  expanding  any 
of  its  elements  into  a  proposition  ;  as,  "  A  m-  rcif'al  man  is  merciful  to  hia 
beast  "  ss  A  man  who  is  merciful,  is  merciful  to  his  beast. 

(5.)  A  complex  sentence  may  be  changed  1 1  a  compound,  by  raising  the 
subordinate  clause  to  an  equal  rank  with  the  principal,  and  changing  the 
subordinate  connective  to  a  coordinate;  as.  "  When  spring  comes,  the 
flowers  will  bloom  "  ==  The  spring  will  come,  and  the  flowers  will  bloom. 

(0.)  A  compound  sentence  may  be  changer,  to  a  complex,  by  depressing 
one  of  its  propositions  into  a  subordinate  r?nk ;  as,  "Man  lias  a  moral 
sense,  and  therefore  he  is  an  accountable  be'oig  "  ss  Since  man  has  a  mor- 
al sense,  he  is  an  accountable  being. 

(7.)  A  question  for  gaining  assent  may  be  changed  into  a  declarative 
sentence,  or  a  declarative  sentence  maybe  (hanged  into  a  question  for 
gaining  assent ;  as,  "  Will  he  plead  against  me  with  his  great  power  ?  "  = 
lie  will  nut  plead  against  me  with  his  great  p->wer. 

Rem.  A  question  for  gaining  assent,  or  a  question  of  appeal,  is  employed, 
not  when  the  speaker  is  in  doubt,  but  when  ic  wishes  to  gain  the  assent 
of  the  hearer,  and,  as  it  were,  commit  him  to  his  own  views.  Hence,  when 
the  speaker  expects  a  negative  answer,  he  or,  .its  the  negative  in  the  ques- 
tion ;  and  when  he  expects  an  affirmative  answer,  he  inserts  the  negative 
in  the  question.'  In  the  declarative  senten-c,  the  opposite  of  this  rule 
should  prevail.     See  example  above. 

(8.)  Any  sentence  is  said  to  be  reconstmcti  i,  or  recast,  when  the  former 
construction  is  wholly  disregarded;  as,  "  That  which  agrees  with  the  will 
of  God  should  please'us  "  =  We  should  be  phased  with  whatever  is  agree 
able  to  the  will  of  our  heavenly  Father. 


EXERCISES. 

(1.)  Use  the  active  for  the  passive,  and  the  passive  for  the  active^  m  tl 
following  examples,  supplging  the  agent  whenever  omitted :  — 

He  has  bestowed  a  great  many  favors  upo-i  us.  Gold  has  been  disc  < 
ered  in  Australia.  I  will  call  you  in  the  morning.  The  work  was  rinis'  0d 
at  the  appointed  time.  A  battle  was  fought  at  Waterloo.  He  was  b?  »ed 
in  Westminster  Abbey.  They  spent  the  summer  at  the  sea  shore.  He 
made  great  progress  in  his  profession. 

(2.)  In  the  folloioing  examples,  change  ary  element  of  the  first  c  js  U 
one  of  the  second,  and  the  reverse  :  — 


SYNTAX  —    ELEMENTS     SUPPRESSED.  147 

A  morning  walk  is  conducive  to  health.  A  marble  statue  was  placed  in 
the  grove.  Joseph's  father  gave  him  a  coat  of  many  colors.  Jonathan 
ivas  the  friend  of  David,  lney  reached  the  top  of  the  mountain.  Achilles 
Was  a  Grecian  hero.  The  <.iege  of  Troy  continued  ten  years.  The  city 
of  Corinth  was  taken  by  Mammius.  Her  sister's  death  was  a  great  afflic- 
tion. The  gentleman's  ch;< vacter  is  above  suspicion.  My  son,  hear  the  in 
Btruction  of  thy  father,  anc.  forsake  not  the  law  of  thy  mother. 

(."M  Change  the  following  complex  sentences  to  simple  or  contracted  com- 
phx  i  mtences  by  abridging  the  subordinate  clause :  — 

Si  ice  such  is  the  fact,  you  have  no  cause  for  solicitude.  When  you  look 
into  the  Bible,  you  see  holiness  and  purity  its  great  characteristics.  Be- 
cause I  tell  you  the  truth,  ye  believe  me  not.  A  man  who  is  deceitful  can 
Dover  be  trusted.  A  short  time  since,  and  he  who  is  the  occasion  of  our 
Borrows  was  the  ornament  of  his  country.  Happy  is  the  man  that  findeth 
wisdom.     I  do  not  know  where  he  is  concealed. 

(1.)  Expand  the  Italicized  elements,  in  the  following  simple  sentences, 
into  subordinate  clauses  :  — 

The  crocuses,  blooming  in  the  garden,  attracted  the  bees.  Hannibal,  the 
Carthaginian  general,  conquered  the  Romans  in  four  battles.  Having  ac- 
cumu/itted  a  fortune, he  will  retire  from  business.  We  told  him  to  leave. 
Gliding  along  the  edge  of  the  horizon,  a  distant  sail  attracted  our  attention. 
He  should  have  perished  upon  the  brink,  before  attempting  to  cross  it.  The 
body,  having  reached  its  maturity,  falls  inevitably  into  decay. 

(5.)  Change  the  examples  in  exercise  (3)  into  compound  sentences,  and 
then  back  again  to  complex. 

MODEL. 

Such  is  the  fact,  and  therefore  you  have  no  cause  for  solicitude  =  Since 
such  is  the  fact,  you  have  no  cause  for  solicitude. 

(6.)  Change  the  following  sentences,  the  declarative  into  interrogative, 
and  the  interrogative  into  declarative  ;  — 

He  listened  to  the  music  of  the  running  brook.  He  found  pleasure  in 
giving  instruction.  He  made  the  experiment  successfully.  Were  thev  not 
gone  longer  than  you  expected  ?  Was  not  the  lecture  interesting  ?  Hast 
thou  commanded  "the  morning  since  thy  days,  and  caused  the  dayspring  to 
know  his  place  ?  Have  the  gates  of  deatli  been  opened  unto  thee?  De- 
clare, if  thou  knowest  it  all.     You  may  be  allowed  to  speak. 

(7  )  Reconstruct  the  following  •  — 

He  left  the  home  of  his  childhood.  He  came  unexpectedly.  Death  if 
the  common  lot  of  all.  The  season  for  the  singing  of  birds  is  near.  Honest1 
is  the  best  policy.  Reverence  the  aged.  A  river  in  France  is  called  th» 
Loire.  Cold  is  the  hearth  within  their  bowers.  He  paused  upon  the  brink 
Let  me  have  leave  to  speak.  It  was  the  night  of  the  soul.  Like  a  spc 
tre  in  the  night,  the  grandeur  of  Rome  nas  vanished.  Beauty  dwells  is 
all  our  paths. 

II.    Elements  Suppressed.  —  Ellipsis. 

When  the  construction  requires  the  repetition  of  any  par 
of  the  sentence,  that  part,  if  the  meaning  is  sufficiently  evi- 
dent, may  be  suppressed  or  omitted  by  ellipsis. 


148  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

Note.  —  For  all  the  varieties  cf  ellipsis,  see  "  Peculiarities  and  Idioms,' 

By  an  ellipsis  of  a  common  part,  a  compound  sentence 
may  be  reduced  to  a  partial  or  contracted  compound  sen- 
tence ;  as,  "  Bacon  was  a  distinguished  writer,  Shakspeare 
was  a  distinguished  writer,  and  Butler  was  a  distinguished 
writer"  =  Bacon,  Shakspeare,  and  Butler  were  distinguished 
writers. 

By  supplying  ellipses,  any  contracted  compound  sentence 
may  be  changed  to  a  complete  compound  ;  as,  "  The  king 
and  queen  were  absent "  =  The  king  was  absent,  and  the 
queen  was  absent. 

EXERCISES. 

Take  any  of  the  examples  in  "  Construction,"  Sec.  IV.,  and  convert  them 
into  complete  compounds ;  then  change  them  back  to  partial  or  contracted 
compounds. 

III.    Elements  Transposed. 

The  arrangement  of  the  elements  is  the  position  which 
they  take  in  the  sentence. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  arrangement,  the  natural  and  the 
inverted  or  transposed. 

In  a  proposition,  by  the  natural  order,  the  subject  is  placed 
before  the  predicate  ;  the  adjective  element  is  placed  before 
the  noun  when  of  the  fir»*  class,  but  after  the  noun  when  of 
the  second  or  third  ,  me  objective  element  is  placed  after 
the  verb  which  governs  it ;  and  the  adverbial  element  com- 
monly follows  the  objective  element ;  us,  "  The  good  boy 
studied  his  geography  attentively."  u  The  kingdom  of  Sar- 
dinia is  situated  in  the  south  of  Europe." 

An  element  is  transposed  whenever  it  is  placed  out  of  its 
natural  order  ;  as,  "  Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians." 
"  Copernicus  these  wonders  told."  "  Wisely  were  his  efforts 
directed." 


SYN  TAX ANALYSIS.  149 


EXERCISES. 


Putiit  out  the  elements  which  are  transposed  in  the  following  sentences 
%nd  then  arrange  the»i  in  their  natural  order  :  — 

Welcome  thou  art  to  me.  From  the  king  I  come  to  learn  how  you  have 
dealt  with  him.  For  now  his  son  is  duke.  Unto  my  mother's  prayers,  I 
bend  the  knee.  Infected  be  the  air  whereon  'they  ride.  Accursed  be  the 
tongue  that  tells  me  so.  How  bright  and  goodly  shines  the  moon!  How 
beautiful  is  all  this  visible  world  ! 

Transpose  any  of  the  elements  in  the  jolloxcitvj ;  tell  whether  the  sen- 
tence is  thereby  improved  or  not :  — 

A  6hort  time  since,  and  he  who  is  the  occasion  of  our  sorrows  was  the  or- 
nament of  his  country.  Approach,  and  behold,  while  I  lift  from  his  sepul- 
chre its  covering.  'Where  is  the  mother  who  would  willingly  forget  the 
infant  that  perished  like  a  blossom  from  her  arms,  though  every  recollec- 
tion is  a  pang  ?  But,  as  if  this  were  not  enough,  the  unfortunate  victims 
of  this  law  are  told,  in  the  next  place,  that,  if  they  can  convince  the  presi- 
dent that  his  suspicions  are  unfounded,  he  may,  if  he  pleases,  give  them  a 
li  cense  to  stay.  Man,  we  believe,  never  loses  the  sentiment  of  his  true 
good. 


II.    ANALYSIS. 

Analysis  consists  in  resolving  a  sentence  into  its  elements, 
and  pointing  out  the  offices  and  relations  of  each. 

Parsing  consists  in  naming  the  parts  of  speech,  giving 
their  modifications,  relations,  agreement,  or  government,  and 
the  rules  for  their  construction. 

Note.  —  The  learner  having  now,  by  the  process  of  construction,  become  acquaint- 
ed with  the  various  kinds  of  sentences,  their  componerjl  parts  in  ail  their  relations 
and  forms,  is  prepared  fur  the  opposite  process  of  taking  i.i  pieces  What  lie  has  learned 
to  build  up.  He  should  proceed  carefully  at  first,  mastering  each  sentence  as  he 
advances,  it  will  be  well  for  him  to  mingle  the  two  exercises  of  constructing  and 
analyzing,  and  in  all  cases  to  keep  up  the  habit  of  parsing  according  to  the  nior.e' 
already  given.  Lei  any  or  all  of  the  examples  in  Construction  be  analyzed  by  t 
pupil. 


GENERAL  DIRECTIONS. 

In  analyzing  a  sentence,  the  learner  should  observe  th 
following  directions  :  — 

(1.)  Read  the  sentence,  and  determine  whether  it  is  declarative,  inter 
togaiive,  imperative,  or  exclamatory. 

(2.)  Endeavor  to  realize  all  the  ideas  in  the  sentence,  by  thinking  or  im« 
agining  what  the  writer  describes  as  if  you  were  with  him,  and  could  see  with 
the  mental  eye  just  what  each  word  represents. 
13* 


150  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

<3.)  Arrange  '■'•<■  sentence,  if  inverted,  in  the  natuial  order. 

(4.)  If  necess  iry,  supply  ellipses. 

(5.)  Find  out  the  fewest  possible  words  which  make  the  principal  <u 
tcrtion.  and  then  see  what  words  or  groups  of  words  are  added  to  these,  to 
show  what,  how  many,  what  kind,  whose,  where,  ichen,  why,  fiow,  etc. 

(6.)  If  the  principal  assertion,  with  all  the  words,  and  groups  of  words, 
which  make  up  the  sentence,  is  found  to  contain  but  one  proposition,  it  » 
a.  simple  sentence. 

It  should  be  analyzed,  — 

(a.)  By  stating  what  hind  of  a  sentence  it  is. 

(o.)  By  pointing  out  the  simple  or  grammatical  subject. 

(c.)  By  pointing  out  the  simple  or  grammatical  predicate. 

(d.)  By  pointing  out  the  words  or  groups  of  words  which  are  added  to 
the  subject,  showing  what  kind  of  element;  how  connected;  what  effect 
;ach  addition  has  upon  the  subject,  that  is,  how  it  limits,  what  it  excludes, 
&c. ;  whether  it  is  simple,  complex,  or  compound  —  if  complex  or  compound, 
what  are  the  simple  elements  which  compose  it,  and  what  effect  one  has 
upon  another. 

(e.)  By  showing  what  the  complex  or  logical  subject  is. 

{/.)  By  pointing  out  separately  all  the  words,  or  groups  of  words,  which 
are  added  to  the  predicate,  and  disposing  of  them  as  in  the  subject. 

(ff.)  By  showing  what  is  the  complex  or  logical  predicate.* 

(7.)  If  the  subject  or  predicate  of  the  principal  assertion  is  a  proposi- 
tion, or  if  any  of  the  groups  of  words,  added  directly  or  remotely  to  modify 
either  of  these,  contain  a  proposition,  then  the  sentence  is  complex,  and 
should  be  analyzed,  — 

(a.)  By  pointing  out  the  principal  and  subordinate  proposition  or  prop- 
ositions. 

(6.)  By  commencing  with  the  principal  proposition  as  though  it  were  a 
single  sentence,  and  analyzing  it  as  above,  introducing  the  subordinate 
proposition  as  a  group  of  words  forming  an  organic  or  component  part  of 
the  principal,  and  calling  it  substantive,  adjective,  or  adverbial,  as  the  case 
may  be.  Then  show  its  modifying  effect,  as  in  the  case  of  any  other  element ; 
explain  the  connection,  point  out  the  connective,  and  then  analyze  the 
proposition  as  if  it  were  a  simple  sentence. 

(8.)  If  the  sentence  contains  one  proposition,  to  which  is  added  another 
that  in  no  way  modifies  the  construction  of  the  former,  (it  may  modify  the 
thought,)  it  is  compound,  and  should  be  analyzed,  — 

(a.)  By  separating  it  into  its  several  coordinate  propositions. 

(b.)  By  pointing  out  the  connection,  explaining  its  nature,  and  disposing 
of  the  coordinate  connective. 

(c.)  By  pointing  out  the  parts  of  each  proposition,  as  in  the  case  of  a 
simple  sentence. 

(9.)  If  the  sentence  is  a  contracted  complex,  analyze  it  as  a  simple 
sentence,  but  point  out  the  part  which  is  equivalent  to  a  subordinate  clause. 


*  This  minute  method  is  to  be  pursued  when  great  accuracy  is  desired.  At  time* 
it  is  best  to  adopt  a  much  .shorter  method.  Sometimes  it  will  be  well  to  vary  tin 
above  order,  giving  the  complex  subject  or  predicate  first,  and  then  the  simple,  point- 
ing out  all  the  added  words  which  make  up  the  complex.  Various  models  of  the 
ihorter  methods  will  be  given 


SYNTAX MODELS    FOtt    ANALYSIS.  1^1 

(10.)  If  the  sentence  is  a  partial  01  contracted  compear'!,  analyze  it 
lis  a  simple  sentence,  regarding  the  coO:  dinate  elements  as  one  compound 
element. 

(11.)  Every  element  consisting  of  parts  should  be  separated  into  it 
parts. 

MODELS  FOR  ANALYSIS. 

I.    Elements  with  the  Relations  Unrepresented. 

"  George  writes." 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  but  one 

proposition  ;  declarative,  because  it  declares  something 
\1eorgt  .      ,  is  the  subject,  because  it  is  that  of  which  the  action 

"writes"  is  affirmed. 
Writes is  the  predicate,  because  it  is  that  which  is  affirmed 

of  "  George." 

Note.  —  It  is  well  often  to  combine  parsing  with  analysis,  thus :  Crorge  is  the  subject, 
&c.  ;  it  is  a  proper  noun,  third  person,  singular  number,  masculine  gender,  nomina- 
tive case,  by  Rule  I.  Write* is  the  predicate  —  an  irregular  verb,  indicative  nioiio, 
present  tense,  third  person  singular,  and  agrees  with  its  subject,  George,  by  Rule  IV 
At  other  times,  the  two  exercises  may  be  separated,  and  sometimes  it  is  well  to  re 
quire  the  pupils  to  parse  Ihe  words,  taking  them  in  the  exact  order  of  construction  . 
first,  the subject ;  second,  the  predicate;  third,  mod  ideations  of  the  subject;  fourth, 
modifications  of  the  predicate. 

Exercise.  —  Any  examples  in  "  Construction."  —  Sec.  1. 

"  The  summer  shower  fulls  gently." 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  but  one 
proposition ;  declarative,  because  it  declares  some- 
thing. 

Shower is  the  grammatical  subject ;  it  is  simply  that  of  which 

something  is  affirmed. 

Fulls is  the  grammatical  predicate,  because  it  is  that  which 

is  affirmed  of  "  showers."  The  subject  is  limited  by 
summer,  a  simple  adjective  element  of  the  first  class  ; 
adjective,  because  it  is  used  to  limit  a  noun ;  of  the 
first  class,  because  it  is  a  single  word  joined  directly 
to  the  subject,  without  a  connective  ;  it  limits  by  am 
swering  the  question,  "  What  kind  oft"  it  excludes 
the  idea  of  all  showers  falling  at  any  other  time  than 
summer ;  it  n  a  simple  element,  because  nothing  it 
added  to  it.  The  subject  is  also  limited  by  the,  a  sim- 
ple adjective  element  of  the  first  class;  it  limits  by 
showing  that  some  particular  shower  is  meant. 

T*  imk'j  thower  is  the  logical  subject,  because  it  is  the  grammatical 
subject  with  all  its  limitations.  The  predicate  is  lim- 
ited by  gently,  a  simple  adverbial  element  of  the  first 
class  ;  it  is  adverbial,  because  it  is  added  to  a  verb,  and 
denotes  manner;  of  the  first  class,  because  it  is  joined 
directly  to  the  predicate  without  a  connective ;  it  lim- 
its by  answering  the  question  "  How  ? "  it  excludes 
the  idea  of  ail  showers  which  do  not  fall  gently  ;  it  is 
simple,  becaus  3  nothing  is  added  to  it. 

fiilk  gently  .  .  is  the  logical  predicate,  because  it  is  the  grammatical 
predicate  with  all  its  limitations 


152  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

Note.  —  The  same  proposition  may  be  analyzed  briefly  in  tht  following 
manner :  — 

It  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence;  the  summer  shower 'is  the  logical  sub- 
ject; shower  is  the  grammatical  subject;  it  is  limited  by  the  two  simple 
adjective  elements  of  the  first  class,  the  and  summer ;  falls  gently  is  the 
logical  predicate ;  falls  is  the  grammatical  predicate,  and  is  limited  by 
a  simple  adverbial  clement  of  the  first  class,  gently. 

"  Whom  seek  ye  ?  " 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  but  one 
proposition  ;  interrogative,  because  it  asks  a  question ; 
indirect,  because  it  inquires  for  only  a  part  of  the  cor- 
responding declarative  sentence,  (it  inquires  for  the  ob- 
jective element  of  the  answer,  "  I  seek  David  ;  ")  in- 
verted because  the  objective  element  is  placed  first. 

ft  .    . is  the  subject,  because  it  is  that  of  which  something  is 

affirmed,  (inquired.) 

Seek is  the  predicate,  because  it  is  that  which  is  affirmed  of 

ye;  grammatical,  because  it  is  the  predicate  without 
any  of  its  limitations  ;  it  is  limited  by  whom,  a  simple 
objective  element  of  the  first  class. 

Seek  whom is  the  logical  predicate,  because  it  is  the  grammatical 

predicate  with  its  limitations. 

Note.  —  When  the  subject  or  predicate  is  not  modified,  the  logical  subject  or  predi- 
cate is  the  same  as  the  grammatical.  But  it  is  not  necessary  to  make  any  distinction 
in  such  cases  ;  simply  say,  subject  or  predicate. 

Exercise.  — Examples  in  "  Construction."  —  Sec.  I.  p.  112. 
"  His  enemies,  the  Germans,  crossed  the  Rhine." 

It  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence ;  (why  ?) 

Enemies is  the  simple  subject ;  (why  ?)     His  enemies,  the  Get 

mans,  is  the  logical  subject ;    (why  ?) 

Crossed is  the  simple  predicate ;  (why?)     Crossed  the  Rhine  is 

the  logical  predicate  ;   (why  ?) 

Enemies is  limited  by  his,  a  simple  adjective  element  of  the 

first  class  ;  and  also  by  the  Germans,  a  complex  adjec- 
tive element  of  the  first  class,  of  which  Germans  is  the 
basis,  and  is  limited  by  the. 

Crossed is  limited  by  the  Rhine,  a  complex  objective  element 

of  the  first  class,  of  which  Rhine  is  the  basis,  and  is 
limited  by  the,  a  simple  adjective  element  of  the  first 
class. 

"  A  very  high  hill  overlooks  an  extensive  valley." 

It  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence ;  (why  ?) 

Etll is  the  simple  subject;  (why  ?)    Avery  high  hillis  the 

complex  subject;  (why  ?) 
Overlooks is  the  simple  predicate;  (why?)     Overlooks  an  exten- 
sive valley  is  the  complex  predicate  ;  (why  ?) 

Hill is  limited  by  a,  a  simple  adjective  element  of  the  firs  I 

class,  and  by  very  high,  a  complex  adjective  element 
of  the  first  class,  showing  what  kind  of  hill ;  adjective, 
because  it  limits  a  noun  ;  complex,  because  the  simple 
element  high  is  itself  limited  by  very,  a  simple  ad- 
verbial element  of  the  first  class  ;  of  the  first  class_.  be- 
cause the  basis  high  is  a  single  word  joined  without  a 
connective  to  hill. 


SYNTAX MO.'Ef.S     FOR     ANALYSIS.  153 

Overlooks  ,  ...  is  limited  by  an  extensive  valley,  a  complex  objective 
element  of  the  first  class,  showing  what  it  overlooks  ; 
valley  is  the  basis  or  principal  part  of  the  objective 
element,  and  is  limited  by  an  and  extensive,  simple  ad 
jective  elements  of  the  first  class  ;  (why  ?)  IS  o\v  parsr 
each  word  in  order,  beginning  with  the  subject. 


II.    Sentences  having  the  Relations  Represented. 
"  To  steal  is  base." 

It  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence. 

To  steal is  the  subject ;  (why?)     It  is  an  element  of  the  sceono 

class,  since  it  has  one  word  (steal)  to  express  an  idea, 
and  another  (to)  to  represent  its  relation.  (See  Rem. 
p.  120.) 

It  base is  the  predicate  ;   (why  ?)     It  is  of  the  second  form, 

having  the  attribute  base  to  express  the  predicate 
idea,  and  is,  the  copula,  to  represent  its  relation,  (predi- 
cate relation.) 

"  The  brother  of  Richard  I.  usurped  the  throne." 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  but  one 
proposition. 

Brother is  the  subject. 

Usurped .is  the  predicate. 

The  aubject,  brother,  is  limited  by  the  phrase  "  of  Richard,"  an  adjective 
element  of  the  second  class,  denoting  the  family  re- 
lation of  "  brother,"  and  "  Richard  ;  "  it  is  equivalent 
to  "  Richard's."  "  Of  "  is  the  connective,  and  "  Rich- 
ard "  is  the  object. 

Of is  a  preposition,  and  shows  the  relation  of  "  Richard  " 

to  "  brother,"  according  to  Rule  XIII. 

Eichard is  a  proper  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  num- 
ber, masculine  gender,  objective  case,  and  is  the  ob- 
ject   of  the  preposition  ''of,"    according    to    Rule 

"  "We  left  on  Tuesday." 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  but  one 

proposition. 

We is  the  subject,  and 

Left is  the  predicate. 

We is  not  limited. 

Left is  limited  by  the  phrase  "on  Tuesday,"  which  denotes 

the  time  of  leaving,  and  is  an  adverbial  element  of  the 

second  class;  on  is  the  connective,  and  Tuesday  is 

the  object. 
On is  a  preposition,  and  shows  the  relation  between  "Tues 

day"  and  "  left,"  according  to  Rule  XIII. 
Tuesday is  a  noun,  &c,  and  is  the  object  of  "  on,"  according 

to  Rule  XIV. 

"  The  wnole  course  of  his  life  has  been  distinguished  by  generous  actions  " 
It  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence ;  (why  ?) 


154  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

Course  . is  the  subject ;  *  (why  ?) 

Has  been  distinguished  is  the  predicate  ;  (why  ?)  It  it  an  element  of  tL  » 
second  form  ;  of  which  distinguished  is  tl  e  attribute, 
expressing  the  idea  of  the  predicate,  and  has  been  is  the 
copula  or  connective,  showing  the  predicate  lelation; 
been  denotes  completion,  and  has  been,  present  com- 
pletion. 

Course is  limited  by  the  and  whole;  (describe  them  ;)  also  by 

the  phrase  of  his  life,  a  complex  adjective  element  H: 
the  second  class,  of  which  life  is  the  object,  ex  pressing 
the  idea,  and  o/'is  the  preposition  or  connects  ,  show 
ing  the  adjective  relation.  It  is  an  adjective  element, 
because  it  is  joined  to  a  noun  to  limit  its  meaning  ; 
complex,  because  the  object,  life,  is  limited  by  his,  (an 
adjective  element  of  the  first  class  ;)  of  the  second 
class,  because  the  word  life  is  joined  to  course  by  the 
connective  of  forming  the  phrase  "  of  life."  The  com- 
plex subject  is,  The  whole  course  of  his  life,  because  it 
is  the  simple  subject,  with  all  its  modifications. 

The  predicate,  7ia*  been  distinguished, ,  is  modified  by  the  phrase  by  generous 
actions,  a  complex  adverbial  element  of  the  second 
class,  of  which  actions  is  the  object,  expressing  the 
idea,  and/;?/  is  the  preposition,  representing  the  athcr- 
bial  relation.  It  is  an  adverbial  element,  because  it  ia 
added  to  the  verb  has  been  distinguished,  and  answers 
the  question  how ;  complex,  because  the  object,  actions 
is  limited  by  generous  ;  (describe  it ;)  of  the  second 
class,  because  the  word  actions  is  joined  to  distinguished 
by  the  connective  by,  forming  the  phrase  by  actions. 

The  complex  predicate  is,  has  been  distinguished  by  generous  actions. 

Notk.  —  The  thorousli  and  min  ite  method  of  analysis,  like  the  above,  should  be 
often  resorted  in,  fur  the  purpose  <  I  giving  the  learner  accurate  ideas  of  the  elements 
and  their  relations.  When  these  are  understood,  or  occasionally,  for  the  sake  of 
Variety,  the  brief  method  should  he  allowed,  thus :  course  is  Use  simple,  and  the 
whole  course  of  his  life  is  the  complex  subject;  has  hrcn  distinguished  is  the  simple, 
and  has  been  ditiin<ruishcd  by  generous  actions,  the  complex  predicate.  Course  id 
limited  by  the,  whole,  and  of  his  life ;  has  been  distinguished  is  limited  by  the  phrase 
by  generous  actions. 


EXERCISES. 

Now  turn  to  the.  exercises  in  Construction,  Sec.  II,  and  analyze  any  of 
the  examples.     Construct  and  analyze  examples  of  your  own. 

III.    Comflex  Sentences. 

w  Who  was  the  author  of  Junius's  Letters  has  never  been  satisfactorily 
determined." 

It  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence  ;  complex,  because 
it  contains  a  principal  and  a  subordinate  proposition  ; 
declarative,  because  it  expresses  a  declaration.     The 


*  When  tire  term  subject  or  predicant  is  used  alone,  the  grammat  cal  subject  or  predi- 
cate is  always  understood. 


SYNTAX  —  .MODELS     h'OR     ANALYSIS.  155 

entire  sentence  (since  the  subject  is  the  subordinate 
Clause)  is  the  principal  proposition,  and  the  subject  of 
the  sentence,  namely,  "  Who  was  the  author  of 
Junius's  Letters,"  is  the  subordinate  substantive  prop- 
osition. "  Who  teas  the  author  of  Junius'*  Letters  "  * 
is  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition. 

Eos  bi.e»\  determined  is  the  simple,  and  has  never  been  satisfactorily  deter- 
mined is  the  logical  predicate.  Has  been  determined 
is  modified  by  never  and  satisfactorily ;  (describe  them.) 

Who is  both  the  subject  and  connective  of  the  subordinate 

clause  ;  as  connective,  it  is  subordinate,  but  as  a  sub- 
*ect  cannot  depend  on  any  superior  term,  there  ia 
nothing  to  which  the  subordinate  clause  (as  subject) 
can  be  joined  ;  hence  who  is  here  a  connective  without 
an  antecedent  term.  As  a  pronoun,  it  is  an  interroga- 
tive used  in  a  subordinate  clause  (see  Rem.  2,  page 
49,)  and  hence  has  no  definite  antecedent. 
fas  autho)  is  the  simple,  and  was  the  author  of  Junius's  Letters  is  the 
complex  predicate ;  author  is  limited  by  the  and  by  of 
Junius's  Letters. 

*'  A  man  who  finds  not  satisfaction  in  himself,  seeks  for  it  in  vain  else> 
where." 

It  is  a  complex  sentence,  because  it  contains  two  dis- 
similar clauses.  "A  man  seeks  for  it  in  vain  else- 
where "  is  the  principal,  and  "  who  finds  not  satisfac- 
tion in  himself     is  the  subordinate  adjective  clause. 

bJan is  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause. 

.Set/i.' is  the  predicate. 

The  subject  ....  is  limited  by  •'  a,"  also  by  the  adjective  clause,  "who 
finds  not  satisfaction  in  himself,"  which  describes 
"  man." 

The  complex  subject  is  "  A  man  who  finds  ;iot  satisfaction  in  himself.' 

The  predicate   ...  is  limited  by  "  for  it,"  "in  vain,"  and  "elsewhere." 

The  cemplex  predicate  is  "seeks  for  it  in  vain  elsewhere." 

W7to is  the  subject  of  the  adjective  clause. 

Finds      is  the  predicate. 

The  pjtdicate  •  •  •  *s  limited,  first,  by'"not;  "  secondly,  by  "satisfac- 
tion ;  "  and  thirdly,  by  "  in  himself." 

Who       is  a  relative  pronoun,  of   the  third  person,  singular 

number,  masculine  gender,  according  to  Rule  V. ;  it  is 
the  subject  of  the  proposition,  "who  finds,"  See.,  ac- 
cording to  Rule  I.,  and  connects  this  proposition  with 
"man,"  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause,  according 
to  Rule  XVI. 

"  Do  you  know  that  you  have  wronged  him  ?  " 

It  is  a  complex  sentence,  because  it  is  composed  of 
dissimilar  clauses;  interrogative,  because  it  asks  a 
question ;  direct,  because  it  can  be  answered  by  yes  or 


*  Btrklty  speaking,  "Who  7oas  author"  is  tlie  grammatical,  and  "  Who  teas  the  au- 
thor tf  Jim**'*  Letters  "  the  logical  subject.  i?i> ;,  unless  great  accuracy  is  required, 
the  entire  proposition  may  bo  regarded  as  simple,  except  when  it  contain?  in  itself  a 
subordinate  proposition. 


156  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

no.  "  Do  you  know  "  is  the  principal,  and  "  that  you 
have  wronged  him,"  the  subordinate  substantive 
clause. 

You is  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause. 

Do  Know is  the  predicate. 

fhc  predicate  ...  is  limited  by  "  that  you  have  wronged  him,"  an  ob- 
jective element,  denoting  what  is  known.  It  is  used 
as  a  noun,  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter  gen- 
der, and  is  the  object  of  "  do  know,"  according  to 
Rule  VIII.  "  Do  know  that  you  have  wronged  hun  " 
is  the  complex  predicate. 

You is  the  subject  of  the  subordinate  clause. 

Have  wronged  ...  is  the  predicate. 

The  predicate  .  .  .  is  limit*  1  by  "him,"  a  simple  objective  element,  show 
ing  whom. 

That is  a  subordinate  conjunction,  and  connects  the  sub- 
stantive clause,  "  you  have  wronged  him,"  to  the 
predicate  of  the  principal  clause,  "  know,"  according 
to  Rule  XV. 

"  W  hen  the  wicked  are  multiplied,  transgression  increaseth." 

It  is  a  complex  sentence.  (Why  ?)  "  Transgression 
increaseth"  is  the  principal,  and  "  when  the  wicked 
are  multiplied,"  the  subordinate  clause. 

Transgression   ...  is  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause. 

Increaseth is  the  predicate. 

The  predicate  ...  is  limited  by  "  when  the  wicked  are  multiplied,"  an 
adverbial  clause  denoting  time.  (See  Rule  IX.)  The 
complex  predicate  is,  "  increaseth  when  the  wicked 
are  multiplied." 

Wicked is  the  subject  of  the  subordinate  clause. 

Are  multiplied  ...  is  the  predicate. 

When is  a  subordinate  connective,    (conjunctive  adverb  of 

time,)  and  joins  the  adverbial  clause,  which  it  intro- 
duces, to  the  predicate  of  the  principal  clause,  accord- 
ing to  Rule  XV.  It  limits  "are  multiplied  "  and 
"increaseth,"  according  to  Rule  IX. 

"  The  Cynic  who  twitted  Aristippus,  by  observing  that 
the  philosopher  who  could  dine  on  herbs  might  despis* 
the  company  of  a  king,  was  well  replied  to  by  Aris- 
tippus, when  he  remarked,  that  the  philosopher  whG 
could  enjoy  the  company  of  a  king  might  also  des- 
pise a  dinner  of  herbs." 

This  is  a  complex  sentence,  containing  seven  clauses,  one  principal,  and 
six  subordinate. 

(1.)  The  Cynic  was  well  replied  to  by  Aristippus, 
(2.)  Who  twitted  Aristippus  by  observing, 

(3.)  That  the  philosopher  might  despise  the  company  of  a  king, 
(4.)  Who  could  dine  on  herbs, 
(5.)   When  he  remarked, 

(6.)   That  the  philosopher  might  also  despise  a  dinner  of  herbs, 
(7.)   Who  can  enjoy  the  company  of  a  king. 
The  first  is  the  principal  claus  ?,  and  the  others  are  subordinate. 
tynic is  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause. 


SYNTAX  —  CLAUSES  —  MODELS. 

Was  repned  to  ...  is  the  predicate. 

The  subject,  Cynic,  is  limited  by  •  who  twitted  Aristippus  by  observing, 
&c,  a  complex  adjective  element  of  the  third  class  , 
"who  "is  the  connective  and  subject,  "  twitted  "  is 
the  predicate,  and  is  limited,  first,  by  "  Aristippus,"  a 
simple  objective  element  of  the  first  class,  and  also  by 
"  by  observing  that  the  philosopher  might  despise  the 
company  of  a  king,"  a  complex  adverbial  element  of 
the  second  class  ;  "  by  observing  "  is  the  basis,  "  by" 
is  the  connective,  and  "  observing "  is  the  object; 
"observing"  is  limited  by  "that  the  philosopher 
might  despise  the  company  of  a  king,"  a  complex 
objective  element  of  the  third  class,  of  which  "  that" 
is  the  connective;  "philosopher"  is  the  subject,  and 
is  limited  by  "  who  could  dine  on  herbs,"  an  rdjective 
element  of  the  third  class  ;  "  might  despise  "  is  the 
predicate,  and  is  limited  by  "the  company  of  a  king," 
a  complex  objective  element  of  the  first  class. 

The  predicate,  was  replied  to,  is  limited,  first,  by  "  well,"  a  .simple  adverbi- 
al element  of  the  first  class,  and  by  "  by  Aristippus,"  an 
adverbial  element  of  the  second  class',  and  also  by  tho 
clause  "  when  he  remarked,  that  the  philosopher," 
&c,  a  complex  adverbial  element  of  the  third  class,  of 
which  "  when  "  is  the  connective,  "  he  "  is  the  subject, 
and  "  remarked"  is  the  predicate  ;  "  "  remarked  "  is 
limited  by  "that  the  philosopher," &e.,  a  complex 
objective  clement  of  the  third  class,  of  which  "  that" 
is  the  connective,  "  philosopher  "  is  the  subject,  "  tho 
philosopher  who  could  enjoy  the  company  of  a  king" 
is  the  logical  subject,  "  might  despise  "is  the  predi- 
cate, and  "might  also  despise  a  dinner  of  herbs  "  is 
the  logical  predicate  ;  the  subject,  "  philosopher,"  is 
limited  by  the  clause  "  who  could  enjoy  the  company 
of  a  king,"  a  complex  adjective  element  of  the  third 
class,  of  which  "  who  "  is  the  connective  and  subject, 
"  could  enjoy  "  is  the  predicate,  and  is  limited  by  "  the 
company  of  a  king,"  a  complex  objective  element  of 
first  class  ;  the  predicate  "might  despise"  is  limited 
oy  "  a  dinner  of  herbs,"  a  complex  objective  element 
of  the  first  class,  of-which  "dinner"  is  the  basis,  and 
#is  limited  by  "of  herbs,"  a  simple  adjective  element 
of  the  second  class. 


EXERCISE. 

Analyze  any  of  the  sentences  in  "  Construction,"  Sec.  III. 

"  A  ship  gliding  over  the  waves,  is  a  beautiful  object." 

This  is  a  simple  sentence,  or,  more  properly  a  con 
traded,  complex. 

Ship is  the  simple,  and 

A  ship  gliding  over  the  waves  is  the  complex  subject. 

Is  object  ......      is  the  simple,  and 

Is  a  beautiful  object  is  the  complex  predicate. 

The  subject,  ship, .  .  is  limited  by  "gliding  over  the  the  waves,"  a  complex 

adjective  element  of  the  first  class;   it  is  equivalent 

to  "  which  glides  over  the  waves,"  and  is  therefore  an 

abridged  proposition,  obtained  by  drop  oing  the  subject 

14 


15S  ENGLISH     liRAMMAft. 

and  connective  "  which,"  and  chancing  "glides,"  th« 
predicate,  into  the  participle  "  gliding." 
Object is  limited  by  M  a  "  and  "beautiful." 

IV.    Sentences  having  Coordinate  Parts. 

"  Socrate3  and  Plato  were  distinguished  philosophers." 

It  is  a  partial  or  contracted  compound  sentence.* 

Socrates  and  Plato  .  form  the  compound  subject,  because  they  are  united 
by  "  and,"  and  have  a  common  predicate,  "  we^» 
philosophers." 

The  subject  ....  is  not  limited. 

fhe  predicate  ...  is  limited  by  "  distinguished,"  an  adjective  element 
of  the  first  class,  used  to  describe  "  philosophers." 

And is  a  coordinate  conjunction,  and  connects  the  two  sim- 
ple subjects,  according  to  liule  XL 

"  You  may  buy  books  or  slates." 

It  is  &  partial  or  contracted  compound  sentence.* 

You is  the  subject. 

May  buy is  the  predicate. 

Ymi is  not  limited. 

May  buy is  limited  by  "books  or  slates,"  a  compound  objec- 
tive element  of  the  first  class,  showing  whut  may  be 
bought. 

Or  . is  a   coordinate   conjunction,    (alternative.)    showing 

that  a  choice  is  offered  between  "  books  "  and 
"slates,"  which  are  connected  bv  it,  according  to 
Rule  XI. 

'*  If  men  praise  your  efforts,  suspect  their  judgment ;  if  they  censure  them, 
your  own." 

It  is  a  compound  sentence,  consisting  of  two  coordi- 
nate parts  ;    each  part  consisting  of  a  principal  and  a 
subordinate  clause. 
The  natural  order  would  lie.  "  Suspect  the  judgment  of  men,  if  they  praise 

your  efforts  ;  your  own,  if  they  censure  them. 
There  is  an  ellipsis  of  the  principal  clause  in  the  second  part ;  this,  if  sup- 
plied, would  be,  "  If  they  censure  them,  suspect  youi 
own  judgment." 
In  the  first  part,  "suspect  their  judgment"  is  the  principal  clause,  and, 
"if  men  praise  your  efforts"  the  subordinate.  In 
the  second  part,  after  the  ellipsis  is  supplied,  "sus- 
pect your  own  judgment*'  is  the  principal  clause,  and 
'if  they  censure  them  "  is  the  subordinate.  "  You" 
(understood)  is  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause  in 
liie  first  part,  "  suspect  "  is  the  predicate  ;  it  is  lim- 
ited, first,  by  "  their  judgment,"  a  complex  objective 
element  of  the  first  class,  used  to  answer  the  question 
"  What?  "  ana  also  by  "  if  men  praise  your  efforts," 
an  adverbial  element  of  the  third  class,  denoting  con- 
dition.    (Analyze  according  to  the  model.) 

*  Let  the  pupil  become  accustomed  to  completing  such  sentences  by  Btipplyinf 
«4Ji;  ses.  tfcus  :  Socrates  vas  a  distinguished  philosopher,  and  Plato  was  a  ii 'stinguishaa 
philosopher. 


SYNTAX  KULES.  I5H 

MYou"  (understood)  is  the  subject  ot  the  principal  clause  in  the  second 
part;  "  suspect "  is  the  predicate;  it  is  limited  by 
"your  own  judgment,"  a  complex  objective  elemeu* 
of  the  first  class,  and  also  by  "  if  they  censure  them.,** 
an  adverbial  element  of  the  "third  class,  denoting  coa- 
dition,  &c. 

Die  two  coordinate  parts  of  the  sentence  are  connected  by  the  adversatire 
conjunction  "but"  understood,  which  denotes  op- 
position or  contrast. 


EXERCISES 

Analyze  and  parse  the  following  sentences  according  to  the  models  •  — 

A  r.oble  income,  nobly  expended,  is  no  common  sight. 

Hu  man  foresight  often  leaves  its  proudest  possessor  only  a  choice  of 
evils. 

Applause  is  the  spur  of  noble  minds  ;  the  end  and  aim  of  weak  ones. 

Grant  graciously  what*  you  cannot  refuse  safely. 

Most  men  know  what  they  hate ;  few  what  they  love. 

lie  who  openly  tells  his  friends  all  that  he  thinks  of  them  must  expect 
that  they  will  secretly  tell  his  enemies  much  that  they  do  not  think  of 
him. 

That  nations  sympathize  with  their  monarch's  glory,  that  they  are  ira- 

{>roved  by  his  virtues,  and  that  the  tone  of  morals  rises  bitach  when  he  that 
eads  the  band  is  perfect,  are  truths  admitted  with  exultation,  and  felt 
with  honest  pride. 

Highly  elated  by  his  unexpected  good  fortune,  he  returned  home.     Sav- 
ing carefully  the  fruits  of  his  labor,  he  at  length  was  able  to  purchase  a 
farm. 
A  pretended  patriot,  he  impoverished  his  country. 


III.    RULES   FOR   CONSTRUCTION. 

Rule  I.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  subject  of  a  prop- 
osition must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

Rule  II.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  attribute  of  a 
proposition  after  the  finite  verb  to  be,  or  any  intransitive  or 
passive  verb,  must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

Rule  III.  A  pronoun  must  agree  with  fts  antecedent  in 
gender,  number,  and  person. 

Rule  IY.  The  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in  num 
bcr  and  person. 


*  What,  as  antecedent,  is  the  objective  clement  of  the  principal  clause,  and  as  rela- 
te, is  the  objective  element  of  the  subordinate  clause. 


160  ENGLtSH     GRAMMAR. 

Rule  V.  An  adjeztive  or  participle  must  belong  to  some 
noun  or  pronoun. 

Rule  VI.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  explain  or  identify 
another  noun  or  pronoun  is  put  by  apposition  in  the  same 
case. 

Rule  VII.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  limit  another 
noun  hy  denoting  possession  must  be  in  the  possessive  case, 

Rule  VIII.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  olject  of  a 
transitive  verb,  or  its  participles,  must  be  in  the  objective 
case. 

Rule  IX.  Adverbs  are  used  to  limit  verbs,  participles, 
adjectives,  and  other  adverbs. 

Rule  X.  The  nominative  case  independent,  and  the  in- 
terjection, have  no  grammatical  relation  to  the  other  parts 
of  the  sentence. 

Rule  XI.  Coordinate  conjunctions  are  used  to  connect 
similar  elements. 

Rule  XII.  When  a  verb  or  pronoun  relates  to  two  01 
moie  nouns  connected  by  a  coordinate  conjunction, — 

(1.)  If  it  agrees  with  thera  taken  conjointly,  it  must  be  in  the  plural 
number. 

(2  )  But  if  it  agrees  with  them  taken  separately ,  it  must  be  of  the  same 
number  as  that  which  stands  next  to  it. 

(3.)  If  it  agrees  with  one,  and  not  the  other,  it  must  take  the  numbei 
of  that  one. 

Rule  XIII.  A  preposition  is  used  to  show  the  relation  of 
its  object  to  the  word  on  which  the  latter  depends. 

Rule  XIV.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  object  of  a 
preposition  must  be  in  the  objective  case. 

Rule  XV.  Subordinate  connectives  are  used  to  join  dis 
similar  elements. 

Rule  XVI.     The  infinitive  has  the  construction  of  tho 
noun,  with  the  signification  and  limitations  of  the  verb,  and 
when  dependent,  is  governed  by  the  word  which  it  limits. 

Rule  XVII.  Participles  have  the  construction  of  adjee- 
ttva<'<  and  nouns,  and  are  limited  like  verbs. 


SYNTAX RULE     I. REMARKS.  161 

RULES,   CAUTIONS,   AND   REMARKS. 

Rule  I.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  subject  of  a 
p.  ^position  must  be  in  the  nominative  case  ;  as,  "  Ccesar 
conquered  Gaul."  "  To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant."  '  That 
there  will  be  an  eclipse  of  the  moon,  has  been  predicted." 

Examples  to  be  analyzed  and  parsed  :  — 

We  found  the  simple  cottage  of  the  artist.  The  gardens  are  full  of  ibs 
freshness  and  beauty  of  morning.  Would  you  see  in  what  peace  a  Chris.- 
tian  can  die  ?  Our  steamer  staggered  in  the  current.  A  curious  echo  is 
here.     The  accused  was  reconducted  to  his  prison.     1  could  not  sustain 

the  picture  of  confinement  which  my  fancy  had  drawn.     *  rose,  and 

prepared  to  leave  the  abbey.     The must  come,  when  the shall 

twine  round  the  fallen  columns.     Now  fades  tin  glimmering on  the 

sight.     That  the  king  can  do  no  wrong,  is   adi  lifted  without  reluctance. 
To  conquer  Gaul  was  Caesar's  purpose  in  his  campaign. 

Construct,  analyze,  and  parse — 

Five  Examples  in  which  the  subject  shall  be  a  noun  or  pronoun,  mas- 
culine, singular  ;  five  in  which  it  shall  be  feminine,  plural ;  five  in  which 
it  shall  be  neuter,  singular  ;  five  in  which  the  subject  is  a  group  of  words. 

Caution.  Never  use  the  objective  as  the  subject  of  a  finite 
verb.     Say,  I  did  it,  not  me  did  it. 

Examples  to  be  corrected  and  parsed  :  — 

You  and  me  will  go  together.  Him  that  is  studious  will  improve.  She 
found  the  place  sooner  than  us.  Them  that  seek  wisdom  will  be  wise 
They  are  people  whom  one  would  think  might  be  trusted.  Who  told  you 
the  story  ?  Him  and  her.  I  know  it  as  well  as  him  or  her.  Who  saw  "the 
eclipse  ?  Us.  Here's  none  but  thee  and  I.  They  have  more  friends  than 
me.     Them  are  the  ones. 

Model.  —  "  You  and  me  will  go  together  "  is  incorrect,  because  the  ob- 
jective pronoun  me  is  made  the  subject  of  the  verb  will  go ;  but  by  Cau- 
tion I.,  the  objective  should  never  be  used  as  the  subject  of  a  finite  verb. 
Correct,  "  You  and  I  will  go  together." 

Rem.  1.  — An  infinitive,  a  sidistantive  clause,  or  any  thing  that  may  be 
used  as  a  noun,  may  be  the  subject;  as,  "  To  steal  is  base."  "  That  you 
have  wronged  me  doth  appear  in  this."     "  S  is  a  consonant." 

Rem.  2. —  Although  every  subject  of  a  finite  v-^rb  must  be  in  the  nom- 
inative case,  every  nominative  .case  is  not  the  subject  of  a  verb.  1  he 
predicate  noun,  or  pronoun,  after  a  finite  verb,  is  put  in  the  nominative; 
A  noun  or  pronoun,  in  apposition  with  the  subject  or  predicate  nominative, 
is  put  in  the  nominative  ;  the  noun  denoting  the  person  addressed  is 
put  in  the  nominative  ;  a  noun  with  a  participle  or  an  infinitive,  in  an 
abridged  proposition,  may  be  in  the  nominative  ;  a  noun  used  in  a  mere 
exclamation  is  put  in  the  nominative.     See  Rule  X. 

Rem.  3.  —  The  subject  is  usually  omitted  in  the  imperative  mode,  and 

*  When  blank*  occur,  words  are  to  be  supplied  and  parsed  bv  the  pur-Q 
li* 


162  ENGLISH     GRAMMA  H. 

after  than,  while,  when,  if  or  though,  as,  when  the  verb  is  made  otic  of  the 
tonus  of  comparison  ;  as,  "  Arise."  "  Go."  "He  reads  as  well  as  [he] 
writes."     "  We  shall  go,  tf  [it  is]  possible." 

Rem.  4.  —  The  subject  is  commonly  placed  before  the  predicate,  but  is 
sometimes  placed  after  it;  as,  "  Were  I  not  Alexander,  I  would  bo 
Diogenes." 

Hem.  5. -—In  an  abridged  proposition,  the  subject  may  remain  un- 
changed, may  be  changed,  or  may  be  wholly  dropped. 

(1.)  It  remains  unchanged  when  it  denotes  a  different  person  or  thing 
Crorc  that  of  the  principal  clause,  and  (though  logically  it  is  still  the  sub- 
ject) is  said  to  be  in  the  nominative  case  absolute,  with  the  participle  of  the 
predicate  ;  as,  "  When  shame  is  lost,  all  virtue  is  lost."  "  Shame  being 
lest,  all  virtue  is  lost." 

(2.)  It  is  changed  to  the  possessive  case  when  the  abridged  predicate, 
as  a  noun,  becomes  the  object  of  its  possession  ;  as,  "  I  was  not  aware 
that  he  was  going."     "  I  was  not  aware  of  his  going." 

(3.)  It  is  cnanged  to  tl  e  objective  case  when  it  follows  a  transitive  verb, 
and  is  followed  by  the  infinitive  of  the  predicate,  or  (when  the  infinitive  is 
omitted)  by  the  attribute  of  the  predicate ;  as,  "  We  supposed  that  he 
was  writing,  was  honest,  or  was  the  commander."  "  We  supposed  HIM  to 
be  xrriting,  to  be  honest,  or  to  be  the  commander ;  "  or,  (omitting  the  infini- 
tive,) "  We  supposed  him  writing,  supposed  him  honest,  supposed  HIM 
the  commander. 

(4.)  It  is  dropped  when  it  represents  the  subject  or  object  of  the  princi- 
pal clause,  or,  in  general,  when  it  represents  the  noun  which  the  subordi- 
nate daise  limits  ;  as,  "  1  wish  that  I  might  go."  "  I  wish  to  go."  "  Re- 
proof  WHJCTf  is  given  in  public  hardens  the  heart."  "  Reproof  given  in 
public  hardens  the  heart."     See  "Abridged  Propositions,"  page  187. 

Rem.  6. — The  nominative  case  absolute  is  sometimes  omitted;  as, 
"  Allowing  tins  to  be  so,  what  then  ?  that  is,  "  We  allowing." 

Rem.  7.  —  The  object  of  the  verb  in  the  active  voices  becomes  its  subject 
in  the  passive  voice ;  as,  "  John  granted  the  Magna  Charta"  =  The  Magna 
Charta  was  granted  by  John. 

Examples  to  be  corrected  and  parsed  by  the  Remarks  under  Rule  /.* 
A  is  an  article.  We  shall  return  as  soon  as  possible.  Repeat  the  lesson  as  I  shall 
dictate.  They  sins  as  well  as  play.  Silver  and  gold  have  I  none,  but  such  as  I  have 
give  1  thee  I  was  not  aware  of  his  being  her  cousin.  We  supposed  that  lie  waa  go- 
ing  We  supposed  him  to  he  going.  His  work  being  finished,  he  will  be  able  to 
leave      May  siic  lit-  happy      Who  broke  this  knife?    J\lc.     You  are  as  old  as  her 

Paul was  there      [know sayest  it ;  says  thy  life  the  same?    The  t's  are 

not  crossed.     Jt  u  certain  that  the  offender  will  be  punished. 

Rule  II.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  attribute  of  a 
proposition,  after  the  finite  verb  to  be,  or  any  intransitive  or 
passive  verb,  must  be  in  the  nominative  case  ;  as,  "  1  am  he.*' 
"  He  is  a  scholar/' 


*  To  thi  Teacher.  —  It  is  recommended  that  the  exercises  on  the  Remarks  be  de 
ferred  till  tb.9  pupil  shall  go  through  the  book  a  second  or  third  time.  The  words  i?j 
Italics  are  to  be  corrected.  The  blanks  are  to  be  filled.  The  sentences  are  to  be  ana- 
lyzed, and  any  or  all  of  the  words  to  be  parsed.  It  is  thought  best  to  throw  in 
the  examples  promiscuously  without  a  definite  reference  to  the  Remarks,  that  the  pa- 
oil  may  learn  to  search  and  apply  for  himself,  as  he  is  now  supposed  to  have  acquired 
tome  skill  in  analyzing  and  parsing. 


SYNTAX RJLE     II. REMARKS.  10.1 

Examples  to  be  parsed :  — 

A  life  of  prayer  is  the  life  of  heaven.  lie  returned  a  friend  who  came 
a  foe.  Art  thou  that  traitor  angel,  art  thou  he  ?  No  contemptible  orator 
he  was.  The  tree  w»d  called  the  "  Charter  Oak."  John  was  called  the 
beloved  disciple.  He  was  elected  governor  by  a  large  majority.  He 
died  a  madman.  It  will  remain  a  monument  of  his  greatness.  You  are 
my  friend.  It  could  not  be  she.  Has  he  been  a  studeut  ?  His  meat  was 
locusts  and  mid  honey. 

Construct,  analyze,  and  parse  — 

Five  Examples  in  which  the  noun  or  pronoun  shall  be  masculine  plu- 
ral ;  fice  in  which  it  shall  be  feminine  singular  ;  jive  in  which  it  shall  be  a 
noun,  or  a  group  of  words,  neuter  singular. 

Caution.  The  attribute  after  a  finite  verb  should  never 
le  in  the  objective.     Say,  It  is  I,  not  me. 

Examples  to  be  corrected  :  — 

It  is  me.  It  is  them  that  must  be  blamed.  I  would  do  so,  if  I  were 
him.  Whom  do  you  think  it  is  ?  It  may  have  been  her.  I  do  not  know 
whom  it  is.     It  is  not  me  ;  it  is  her.     Whom  do  men  say  that  I  am  ? 

Rem.  1.  — The  predicate  nominative  always  denotes  the  same  person  or 
thing  as  the  subject,  and  must  agree  with  it  in  case.  When  the  predicate 
nominative  denotes  a  person,  it  usually  agrees  with  the  subject  in  gender 
number,  and  case. 

Hem.  2.  —  By  a  peculiar  idiom  of  the  English  language,  the  neuter  pro- 
noun it,  as  subject,  may  represent  a  noun  or  pronoun  as  predicate  of  any 
number,  person,  or  gender;  as,  "  It  is  I."  "  It  is  they."  "  It  is  James." 
'"It  is  she." 

REM.  3.  —  This  rule  applies  when  copulative  verbs  are  used;  as,  "  He 
is  becoming  an  artist." 

Rem.  4.  —  An  infinitive  or  substantive  clause  may  be  used  as  the  predi- 
cate nominative;  as,  "  To  live  is  to  exist."  "My  impression  is,  that 
he  null  come." 

Hem.  5. —  In  an  abridged  proposition,  (see  "Abridged  Propositions," 
page  185,)  the  predicate  nominative  may  remain  unchanged,  may  hf 
changed,  but  can  never  be  dropped. 

(It)  It  remains  unchanged  in  the  nominative  when  the  suc/ect  remains 
in  the  nominative  ;  as,  "  As  a  youth  was  their  leader,  what  could  they 
do?"  "  A  youth  being  their  leader,  what  could  they  do  ?  "  Here 
leader  is  in  the  nominative,  after  the  participle  being,  because  youth  is  in 
the  nominative. 

(2.)  It  remains  unchanged  in  the  nominative,  relating  logically  (not 
grammatically)  to  the  omitted  or  altered  subject,  when,  in  connection  with 
the  infinitive,  or  participle  of  the  copula,  it  forms  a  verbal  noun  :  as, 
u  That  one  should  be  a  thief,  is  strange."  "  Being  a  thief,  or  to  be  a 
thief,  is  strange."  "  I  was  not  aware  that  it  icas  he."  "  I  was  not 
aware  of  ITS  being  he."  Here  thief  and  he  are  in  the  nominative  after  be- 
ing, or  to  be,  because  the  subject,  being  either  changed  to  the  possessive  or 
dropped,  has  no  power  over  the  predicate  noun. 

(3.)  It  is  changed  to  the  objective  when  the  subject  is  changed  to  the 
objective,  or  when  the  noun  which  the  omitted  subject  would  represent  (see 
Rem.  5.  (4)  Rule  I.)  is  in  the  objective ;  as,  "  I  believed  that  it  teas  he." 
«'  1  believed  it  to  be  HIM."  "  We  found  a  plant  which  is  called  the  lilac." 
**  We  found  a  plant  called  the  lilac."  Here  he  becomes  him,  because  it 
is  changed  to  the  objective,  and  lilac  is  in  the  objective,  because,  which 


164  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

Deing  dropped,  it  derives  its  case  from  the  antecedent,  plant.  Had  plant 
been  in  the  nominative,  as  in  the  following,  "  The  plant  which  is  called 
the  lilac  is  fragrant,"  lilac  would  have  been  in  the  nominative,  cfter  the 
change  of  the  adjective  clause;  as,  "  The  plant  called  the  lilac  is  fra- 
grant." 

RBM.  G.  —  The  form  of  the  verb  is  not  affected  by  the  predicate,  but  by 
the  subject  nominative;  as,  "Apples  are  fruit."  "  His  food  was  vege- 
tables." 

Hem.  7.  — The  predicate  nominative  is  commonly  placed  after  the  verb, 
and  the  subject  nominative  before  it;  but  in  questions,  both  direct  and 
indirect,  this  order  is  not  observed  ;  as,  "  Is  that  the  master?  "  "  Who  i% 
het  "  that  is.   "  lie  is  who  ?  " 

Examples  to  be  parsed  or  corrected  by  the  Remarks  under  Rule  IT. 

Ho  became  his  faithful .     To   teach    is   to .      Mr. being  tl:er: 

teacher,  they  made  rapid  progress.  Uein^  a  stranger,  lie  was  very  lonely.  1  know 
not  who  tiiou  art.  I  believed  it  to  lie  trim.  They  believed  it  to  be  /.  Who  do  you  sup- 
pose it  to  be."     Me  was  not  known  to  be  a .    A  man  he  was  to  all  the  country 

dear  She  is  the  person  who  ,.  understood  her  to  be.  His  pavilion  were  dark  waters, 
and  thick  clouds  of  the  sky.     We  found  an  animal  called  a  weasel. 

Rule  III.  A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent  in 
gender,  number,  and  person  ;  as,  "  Those  men  who  are  most 
consistent  are  not  more  unlike  to  others  than  they  are  at  times 
to  themselves.'''' 

Examples  to  be  analyzed  and  parsed  :  — 

Ye,  therefore,  who  love  mercy,  teach  your  eons  to  love  it  too.  Othei 
sheep  I  have,  which  arc  not  of  this  fold. 

This  is  the  friend  of  whom  I  spoke.  He  who  had  no  mercy  upon  others 
is  now  reduced  to  a  condition  which  may  excite  the  pity  of  his  most  im 
placable  enemy. 

At  sea,  every  thing  that  breaks  the  monotony  of  the  surrounding  ex- 
panse attracts  attention.  They  found  that  all  their  efforts  were  unavail- 
ing. That  life  is  long  which  answers  life's  great  end.  He  is  the  friend 
whose  arrival  is  daily  expected. 

Construct,  analyze,  and  parse  —  - 

Six  Examples  in  which  a  personal  pronoun  shall  be  in  the  nominative 
singular ;  six  in  which  a  personal  pronoun  shall  be  possessive  singular ; 
six  In  which  the  personal  pronoun  shall  be  objective  plural;  six  in  which  a 
relative  pronoun  shall  be  in  the  nominative  singular,  three  referring  to 
persons,  and  three  to  things  or  animals ;  six  in  which  the  relative  shall  be 
in  the  possessive  or  objective  case  ;  six  in  which  an  interrogative  pronoun 
shall  be  used,  two  in  the  nominative,  two  in  the  possessive,  and  tioo  in 
*he  objective. 

Caution  I.  Avoid  the  use  of  a  noun  and  pronoun  as  sul- 
ject  jr  object  of  the  same  verb,  unless  great  emphasis  is  re- 
quired.    Say,  The  boy  did  it,  not,  the  boy,  he. 

Examples  to  be  corrected:  — 

Many  words  they  darken  speech.  That  girl  she  is  very  ignorant.  The 
king  he  was  very  angry.  Anna,  she  told  me  so.  The  teacher  approving 
"".e  plan.;  he  immediately  adopted  it.  Whom  when  they  had  washed,  they 
_.;l  her  in  an  upper  chamber.     What  he  said,  he  is  now  sorry  for  it 


SYNTAX RULE  111. CAUTIONS  AND  REMARKS.    165 

Caution  II.  Avoid  the  use  of  a  plural  pronoun  having 
a  singular  antecedent.  Saj  ,  Let  every  one  attend  to  his, 
not  their,  work. 

EXAMPLES  to  be  corrected  :  — 

Let  each  schola.  who  thinks  so  raise  their  hands.  A  person  can  con- 
tent themselves  on  small  means.  Let  everyone  answer  for  themsehes. 
Rebecca  took  goodly  raiment,  and  put  them  upon  Jacob.  Can  any  one  bs 
sure  that  they  are  not  deceived  ? 

Caution  III.  In  the  use  of  a  pronoun,  avoid  ambiguity  in 
its  reference  to  an  antecedent. 

Examples  to  be  corrected :  — 

Thou  hast  no  right  to  be  a  judge,  who  art  a  party  concerned.  A  hawk 
caught  a  hen,  and  eat  her  in  her  own  nest.  A  purse  was  lost  in  the  street 
which  contained  a  large  sum  of  money.  There  are  millions  of  people  in  the 
empire  of  China  whose  support  is  derived  almost  entirely  from  rice. 

Caution  IV.  Never  plate  a  pronoun  of  the  first  person  he- 
fore  a  noun  or  pronoun  of  the  second  or  third,  or  one  of  the 
third  before  one  of  the  second.  Say,  George,  and  you,  and 
I,  not  I,  and  you,  and  George,  will  go. 


ro 

M; 


Examples  to  be  corrected :  — 

I  and  you  may  go,  if  I  and  he  can  agree.     I,  and  you,  and  Harriet  ar« 
Father  said,  that  I  and  Henry  should  stay  at  home.     When  will 
ary  and  you  be  ready  ?     Horace,  and  I,  and  you  are  invited. 

Caution  V.  Avoid  the  use  of  who,  when  speaking  of  ani- 
mals and  inanimate  objects,  and  of  which,  when  speaking  of 
persons.     Say,  The  cat  which  mews,  not  who. 

Examples  to  be  corrected :  — 

There  was  a  certain  householder  which  planted  a  vineyard.  He  has  a 
soul  who  cannot  be  influenced  by  such  motives.  This  is  the  dog  whom 
my  father  bought.  The  lady  which  we  saw  was  hi  jhly  educated.  'He  ha* 
some  friends  which  I  am  acquainted  with.  The  iadge  which  pronounced 
the  sentence  was  an  upright  man  Those  which  deoire  to  be  happy  should 
be  careful  to  do  that  which  is  right. 

Caution  VI.  Avoid  a  change  of  number,  or  a  change  of 
pronouns,  when  reference  is  made  to  the  same  antecedent  in 
the  same  sentince. 

Examples  to  }e  corrected : — 

Though  thou  art  wise,  you  sometimes  misjudge.  Do  thyself  no  harm, 
«id  no  cne  will  harm  you.     This  is  the  man  who  discovered  our  distress, 


166  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

and  that  brought  us  relief.  I  know  you,  who  thou  art  ti.at  annoyest  me 
at  thy  gate.     O  thou  who  art  all-wise,  and  that  rulest  over  all ! 

Rem.  1.  —  Interrogative  pronouns  commonly  refer  to  objects  unknown 
to  the  speaker ;  and  hence  the  gender,  number,  and  person  must  be  as~ 
turned,  till  the  person  or  thing  inquired  for  becomes  known.  Although 
the  pronoun  in  such  cases  may  not  agree  with  the  actual  object  in  ques 
tion,  consistency  should  be  preserved  in  every  reference  to  the  assumed 
one.  The  following  sentence  is  wrong,  owing  to  a  change  of  number  in 
the  supposed  object.  "  Who  teas  not  charmed  with  the  music  they 
heard  just  now  ?  "     Was  should  be  changed  to  were,  or  they  to  he. 

Rem.  2.  —  The  English  language  being  destitute  of  a  pronoun  of  the 
third  person,  which  may  apply  equally  to  either  sex,  an  erroneous  use  of 
they,  referring  to  poson,  any  one,  or  some  one,  has  been  adopted  oven  by 
respectable  writers,  to  conceal  the  gender  or  to  avoid  an  awkward  use  of 
he,  or  she,  thus:  "If  any  one  would  test  these  rules  for  the  preservation 
of  health,  they  (he  or  she)  must  persevere  in  all  states  of  the  weather." 
The  want  of  such  a  pronoun  is  still  more  apparent  when  the  speaker  has 
a  definite  person  before  his  mind,  and  wishes  to  conceal  the  gender,  thus : 

"  The  person  who  gave  me  this  information  desired  me  to  conceal 

name."  When  the  person  referred  to  belongs  to  an  assemblage,  known 
to  be  composed  wholly  of  males,  or  wholly  of  females,  the  masculine  or 
feminine  pronoun  should  be  used  accordingly.  But  when  the  person  be 
longs-to  an  assemblage  of  males  and  females,  usage  has  sanctioned  the 
employment  of  a  masculine  pronoun,  thus  :  "  Is  any  among  you  afflicted  ? 
let  him  "  (not  them,  —  not  him  or  her)  "  pray." 

Rem.  3.  —  When  a  pronoun  refers  to  a  collective  noun  in  the  singular, 
it  should  be  neuter  singular,  if  the  noun  conveys  the  idea  of  unity  ;  as, 
"  The  school  was  opened  under  favorable  auspices  ;  but  it  was  dismissed 
for  want  of  patronage."  But  when  the  noun  conveys  the  idea  of  plurali- 
ty, the  pronoun  should  be  plural,  taking  the  gender  of  the  individuals 
composing  the  collection  ;  as,  "  The  multitude  eagerly  pursue  pleasure  as 
their  chief  good." 

Rem.  4.  —  When  things  or  animals  are  personified,  they  should  be  rep- 
resented as  persons  by  the  pronouns  employed  ;  as,  "  Grim  darkness  furls 
his  leaden  shroud."  "  The  wolf  who  from  the  nightly  fold  fierce  drags 
the  bleating  prey." 

Rem.  5.  —  The  pronoun  it  does  not  always  refer  to  a  definite  object. 
See  t:  Etymology,"  page  41,  Rem.  2. 

Rem.  6. — The  pronoun  usually  follows  its  antecedent,  but  sometimes 
it  is  placed  first;  as,  "  Hark  !   they  whisper,  angels  say." 

Rem.  7-  —  Relative  and  interrogative  pronouns  are  usually  placed  at  the 
beginning  of  their  clauses,  even  though  the  order  of  construction  would 
assign  them  some  other  position  ;  as,  "  Patcrnus  had  but  one  son,  whom 
he  educated  himself." 

Rem.  8.  —  The  relative  in  the  objective  is  sometimes  omitted;  as, 
**  Here  is  the  present  [which]  he  gave  me." 

Rem.  9.  —  In  disposing  of  a  personal  pronoun,  two  rules  should  be 
given,  one  for  its  agreement,  and  one  for  its  construction  :  in  disposing  cf 
a  relative,  we  should  add  to  these  the  rule  for  it  as  a  connective. 

Rem.  10.  —  The  construction  of  the  relative  is  independent  of  its  ante- 
cedent. It  may  be  in  the  nominative  case,  as  subject  of  a  finite  verb  — 
nominative  absolute,  jjossessive  case,  or  in  the  objective  case  governed  by  a 
transitive  verb,  or  by  a  preposition  ;  as,  "  They  who  speak.  '  "  We  ordered 
the  horses  to  be  harnessed,  which  being  done,  we  commenced  our  jour- 
ney." "  He  hastened  to  the  palace  of  his  sovereign,  into  whose  presence 
his  hoary  locks  and  mournful  visage  soon  obtained  admission."  "  The 
person  whom  T  saw."     "  Whom  did  "ou  take  him  to  be."     See  Rem.  10 


SYNTAX RULE  IV.  —  CAUTIONS.  167 

R  sle  VIII.  "  Hie  man  whom  they  call  the  janitor."  "This  is  the  rule 
lo  which  we  called  his  attention." 

Hem.  11.  —  The  relative,  when  used  in  a  restrictive  sense,  joins  the  prop- 
osition which  it  introduces  t:>  the  antecedent,  imparting  to  the  chaise  the 
qualities  of  an  adjective.  When  thus  used,  it  commonly  has,  prefixed 
to  the  antecedent,  a  correlative,  such  as  the,  this,  that,  these,  those ;  the  ad- 
iective  clause  becomes  a  necessary  adiition  to  the  antecedent  to  complete 
the  limitation  intimated  by  these  words.  When  not  used  in  a  restrictive 
scr-^e,  the  relative  introduces  an  additional  proposition,  and  is  equivalent 
to  and  he,  and  s/ic,  and  it,  and  they ;  as,  "  He  gave  me  a  book,  which 
he  requested  me  to  read  "  =  H<*  gave  me  a  book,  and  he  requested  me  to 
read  it. 

Rem.  12.  —  When  the  relative  is  governed  by  a  preposition,  it  is  gener- 
ally best  to  place  the  latter  at  the  beginning  of  the  clause;  as,  "  This  is 
the  subject  to  which  he  alluded,"  not  which  he  alluded  to.  But  when  the 
relative  that  is  thus  governed,  the  preposition  is  always  placed  at  the  end  ; 
as,  u  Here  is  the  last  bridge  that  we  shall  come  to."  It  is  better  not  to 
employ  that  when  the  governing  preposition  is  understood  ;  it  is,  however, 
sometimes  used;  as,  "  In  the  day  that  thou  eatest  thereof,  thou  shalt  sure- 
ly die." 

Rem.  13.  —  The  relative  that  should  be  used,  — 

(1.)  After  the  interrogative  who ;  as,  "  Who  that  marks  the  fire  still 
sparkling  in  each  eye,"  kc. 

(2.)  After  an  adjective  in  the  superlative  degree  ;  as,  "  He  was  the  last 
that  left." 

(3.)  After  wry,  all,  same ;  as,  "This  is  the  very  book  that  I  want." 
"  Is  not  this  all  that  you  ask  ?  "  "  He  is  the  same  person  that  I  took  him 
to  be." 

(4.)  When  the  relative  refers  to  both  persons  and  things  ;  as,  "  Here 
are  the  persons  and  papers  that  were  sent  for." 

Examples  to  be  parsed  or  corrected  by  the  Remarks  under  Rule  TIL 

She  is  handsome,  and  she  has  the  misfortune  of  knowing  it.   Whowas  not  delighted 

with  the  walk  which  they  took   in  the ?    If  any  one  would  make  progress, 

th- y  must  resist  temptation.  Is  any  one  tad?  let  him  seek  the  consolation  of  ^m 
gospel.  Every  one  must  judge  of  their  own .  fie  met  crowds,  who  were  go- 
ing up  the  streets.  The  council  were  divided  in  Us  sentiments.  The  lion  said  to  liie 
ass,  which  had  been  hunting  with  it.  He  found  the  books  which  he  sought.  He  found 
tint  he  had  formed  plans  which  could  not  be  accomplished.  He  gave  me  an  exercise, 
and  requested  me  to  correct  it.  He  gave  me  an  exercise  which  he  requested  me  to  cor- 
rect.    This  is  the  very which  I  need.     He  needs  no  spectacles,  that  cannot  nee 

It  is  the  same which  I  showed  you  before.     Who,  iclw  has  any  regard  ihi  his 

reputation,  would  act  thus?  Many  a  man  loses  their  character  by  such  acts.  I  io 
not  care  who  knows  it.  Whom  the  cap  fits,  let  him  put  it  on.  Blessed  is  the  r.au 
Who  feareth  the  Lord,  and  who  keepeth  his  commandments.  It  was  that  Mary 
ivhictl  anointed  the  Lord  with  ointment,  and  wiped  his  feet  with  her  hair,  whose 
brother was  sick 

Rule  IV.  The  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in  num 
bor  and  person  :  as,  "  I  crm."  "  Thou  art  sitting."  "  Wi 
have  come.'''' 

Ex  A.MEI.ES  to  he  parsed :  — 

I  do  entreat  thee.  I  do  think  you  could  contrive  to  find  r*er  employment 
If  yoa  are  inclined  to  it.  They  will  follow  your  advice.  He  gave  up  all  hope 
of  obtaining  his  object.     Murmur  at  nothing.     That  the  evidence  of  this 


168  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

tran's  guilt  will  insure  bis  condemnation,  is  admitted.     To  do  to  others  as 
we  would  have  them  do  to  us,  is  the  golden  rule. 

Construct,  analyze,  and  parse  — 

Fouu  Examples  in  which  the  verb  shall  be  in  the  first  or  second  per 
son,  present  tense ;  four  in  which  it  shall  be  in  the  third  person,  present 
perfect  tense;  four  in  which  the  verb  shall  be  second  person  singular, 
potential,  present,  or  present  perfect;  four  in  which  it  shad  be  present, 
past,  or  future,  progressive  form;  four  in  which  it  shall  be  passive,  pres- 
ent perfect,  past  perfect,  or  future  perfect;  four  in  which  it  shall  be  sec- 
ond person  singular,  emphatic  form  ;  four  in  which  it  shall  be  use  1  inter- 
rogatively in  the  indicative  or  potential ;  four  in  which  shall  or  will  simply 
predict.  . 

Caution  I.  Avoid  the  use  of  a  singular  verb  with  a  phh 
rail  subject.,  or  a  plural  verb  and  a  singular  subject. 

Examples  to  be  corrected  :  — 

Where  was  you  this  morning  when  I  called  ?  He  dare  you  to  do  it. 
They  was  unwilling  to  go.  Relatives  agrees  with  their  antecedents. 
There's  ten  of  us  going.  His  pulse  beat  quick.  She  have  not  done  it. 
Was  you  certain  of  it  ?  We  was  allowed  the  privilege.  Circumstances 
alters  cases.  Has  those  books  been  sent  home  ?  On  one  side  was  sloping 
banks. 

Caution  II.  Never  use  a  singular  verb  ivith  a  collective 
noun  intended  to  express  plurality  of  idea  ;  or  a  plural  verb 
with  a  collective  noun  intended  to  express  unity  of  idea. 

Examples  to  bs  corrected:  — 

The  committee  has  accepted  their  appointment.  The  majority  was  dis- 
posed to  adopt  the  measure  which  they  at  first  opposed.  Blessed  is  the 
people  that  know  the  joyful  sound.  The  fleet  were  seen  sailing  up  the 
channel,  where  afterwards  it  anchored.  The  peasantry  goes  barefoot  with- 
out endangering  their  health.  There  are  a  flock  of  birds.  The  public  is 
requested  "to  attend  for  their  own  benefit.  All  the  world  is  spectators  of 
your  conduct.  The  regiment  consist  of  two  thousand  men.  The  church 
have  no  power  to  adopt  the  measure  which  it  advocates. 

Caution  III.  Never  use  a  plural  verb  with  a  singular  sub- 
fcet,  though  the  latter  be  modified  by  a  noun  in  the  plural. 
Say,  Each  of  his  brothers  is  well,  not  are  well 

Examples  to  be  corrected :  — 

Four  years'  interest  were  expected.  The  derivation  of  these  words  are 
uncertain.  The  story,  with  all  its  additions,  were  believed.  The  increase 
of  his  resources  render  the  change  necessary.  The  number  of  applicants 
increase.  The  general  with  all  His  soldiers,  were  taken.  The  sale  of  the 
poods  take  place  to-m  >rrow.  The  hope  of  retrieving  his  losses  increase 
his  diligence. 

Cauticn  IV.  Be  careful  not  to  use  the  wrong  verb,  as, 
set  for  sit,  lay  for  lis  come  for  go;  nor  the  WRONG  form, 


SYN'l'AX  —  RULE    V. 


169 


*S,  DONE  for  DID  WROTE  for  WRITTEN,  &C.  ,  nor  the  WRONG! 
TENSE,  AS,  SEE  for  SAW,  GIVE  for  GAVE  ;  nor  ^PROPER  CON- 
TRACTIONS, as,  ain't  for  are  not,  &c. 

Examples  to  be  corrected:  — 

I  seen  him  when  he  done  it.  Some  one  has  broke  my  pencil  Tell  them 
(o  set  still.  She  laid  down  by  the  fire.  He  soon  begun  to  be  weary  of  the 
employment.  I  am  going  to  lay  down.  Mary  has  wrote  a  letter.  I  see 
biro  when  he  went.  Ain^l  it  true  ?  We  ain't  going  this  evening.  He  has 
dxank  too  much.  The  tree  has  fell.  You  have  not  did  as  I  told  you. 
John  his  stole  the  knife.  They  are  going  to  our  house  next  week.  He 
give  me  a  great  many  books.  He  knowed.  his  lesson  better  than  Henry. 
They  had  sang  very  well.  I  have  lain  your  book  on  the  shelf.  Will  you 
sit  the  pitcher  on  the  table,  and  let  it  set  there.  The  ship  lays  in  the 
harbor.      I  done  my  sums  first. 

Rem.  1.  —  To  this  rule  there  are  properly  no  exceptions.  The  collec- 
tive noun  in  the  singular  may  take  a  plural  verb,  but  never  except  when 
the  mind  sees  in  it  a  collection  of  individuals. 

Rex  2.  —  The  nominative  and  verb  after  many  a  (an)  should  be  sin- 
gular ;  as,  u  Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen." 

Rem.  3.  —  Verbs  in  the  imperative  mod'j  usually  agree  with  thou,  ye, 
or  you,  understood. 

Rule  V.  An  adjective  or  participle  must  belong  to  some 
noun  or  pronoun;  as,  "The  guilty  man  ; "  ==  "  The  man 
wa.s  guilty"     Or,  more  specifically,  — 

(1.)  An  adjective  or  participle  used  as  the  attribute  of  a  proposition  after 
the  verb  to  be,  or  any  intransitive  or  passive  verb,  belongs  to  the  subject ; 
as,  "  The  tree  is  tall."  "  To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant."  "  Where  the  muds 
will  be  obtained  is  doubtful." 

(2.)  An  adjective  or  participle  used  to  limit  or  qualify  a  noun  belongs 
to  the  noun  which  it  modifies  ;  as,  "  An  upriy/U  judge."  "  Five  boxes." 
"  The  good  old  man." 

Examples  to  be  analyzed  or  parsed:  — 

When  the  morning  stars  sang  together,  and  all  the  sons  of  God  shouted 
for  joy,  where  wast  thou  ?  The  influence  of  such  pursuits  is  ennobling.  He 
was  a  good  man,  and  a  just.  He  was  a  burning  and  a  shining  light.  These 
opportunities,  improved  as  they  should  be,  must  produce  the  desired  results. 
The  hopes  of  the  whole  family  were  centred  on  him.  His  resources  were 
inexhaustible.  To  insult  the  afflicted  is  impious.  Pity  the  sorrows  of  a 
poor  old  man,  whose  trembling  limbs  have  borne  him  to  your  door.  Th;.t 
ho  should  refuse  such  a  proposition,  was  not  unexpected.  Every  thing 
which  is  false,  vicious,  or  unworthy,  is  despicable  to  him.  though  all  the 
world  should  approve  it. 

Construct,  analyze,  and  parse  — 

Five  Examples  in  which  a  limiting  adjective  shall  modify  the  subject , 
five  in  which  a  qualifying  adjective  shall  modify  the  predicate  nominative ; 
five  in  which  a  limiting  and  qualifying  adjective  shall  modify  the  object  of 
a  verb,  or  preposition  ;  five  in  which  the  qualifying  adjective  shall,  witb 
the  copula,  form  the  predicate  ;  five  in  which  the  adjective  shall  be  in  tb# 
comparative  or  superlative  degree. 
15 


170  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

Caution  I.  Never  use  the  limiting  adjective  (article)  i 
before  the  sound  of  a  vowel,  nor  an  before  the  sound  of  a  con" 
zimant.     Say,  An  appie,  not  a  apple. 

Examples  to  be  corrected:  — 

He  found  a  acorn  in  the  woods.  He  was  a  honorable  man  It  is  m 
wonderful  invention.  He  is  an  younger  man  than  we  thought.  She 
showed  an  uniform  adherence  to  truth.     This  is  an  hard  saying. 

Caution  II.  Avoid  the  use  of  a  plural  adjective  to  limit 
,7  singular  noun.     Say,  This  sort  of  people,  not  those. 

Examples  to  be  corrected :  — 

I  do  not  like  remarks  of  these  kind.  Those  sort  of  people  are  very  dis 
agreeable.  Will  you  buy  six  pair  of  boots  ?  I  have  bought  eight  foot  of 
wood.  It  cost  a  thousand  pound.  The  lot  is  fifty  foot  in  width.  Th« 
water  is  six  fathom  deep.  \\'c  walked  three  mile  in  a  short  time.  Hi 
ordered  ten  ton  of  coal. 

Caution  III.  Never  use  the  pronoun  them,  for  the  adjec 
tive  those.     Say,  Those  books,  not  them  books. 

Examples  to  be  corrected :  — 

I  found  them  books  on  the  table.  AVhich  of  them  scholars  recites  the 
best  ?  Go  and  tell  them  boys  to  come  here.  Ask  them  children  to  bring 
them  apples  here. 

Caution  IV.  Avoid  the  use  of  the  adjective  for  the  ad- 
verb.    Say,  Speak  promptly,  not  prompt. 

Examples  to  be  corrected  :  — 

She  dresses  neat.      The   time  passed  very   quick.      The  ship  glides 

smooth  over  the  water.     The  stream  flows  silent  on.     It  is  not  such  a  great 

distance  as  I  thought  it  was.     He  behaved  much  wiser  than  the  others. 

•  Mary  speaks  French  very  fluent.     I   am  exceeding   sorry  to  hear   such 

tidings. 

Caution  V.  Avoid  the  use  of  the  superlative  degree  when 
two  objects  are  compared,  or  the  comparative  when  more  than 
two  are  compared. 

Examples  to  be  corrected  •  — 

He  was  the  larger  of  them  all.  He  was  the  oldest  of  the  two  brothers. 
He  preferred  the  latter  of  the  three.  Which  is  the  oldest  of  the  tw«  ? 
John  is  the  wisest  of  the  two. 

Caution  VI.  Avoid  the  use  of  double  comparatives  and 
guperlatives. 

Examples  to  be  corrected  :  — 

After  the  most  straitest  sect  of  our  religion,  I  lived  a  Pharisee  Thi« 
was  the  most  uuiundest  cut  of  all.     The  rose  is  mostlairest  of  all  flower' 


SYNTAX RULE     V.  —  REMARKS.  17 1 

f  e  is  the  most  kindest  friend  I  have.    Solomon  was  more  wiser  thtn  any 
<»ther  king. 

Rem.  1.  —  The  appropriate  use  cf  the  adjective  is  to  restrict  the  appli- 
cation of  a  noun  used  as  x  common  name  applicable  to  each  individual  of  a 
class.  The  adjective  thus  used  is  always  a  dependent  term,  having  the 
restricted  noun  as  its  principal. 
Rem.  2.  — A  noun  may  be  restricted  or  limited  in  its  application,— 
(1.)  Without  affecting  any  of  its  properties ;  as,  "  Tioo  men."  "  These 
books." 

(2.)  By  designating  some  property  or  quality  ;  as,  "  Good  men."  "  In- 
(Htstrioas  boys." 

(3.)  By  identifying  it ;  as,  "  Paul  the  Apostle"    "  Peter  the  Hermit." 
(4.)  By  representing  it  as  an  object  possessed;  as,  "David's  harp." 
The  first  two  limitations  are  affected  by  adjectives;  the  last  two  vy 
%ou7is  >r pronouns  performing  the  office  of  the  adjectivft. 

Rem  3.  —  Any  word,  or  group  of  words,  employed  to  limit  a  noun,  is  aa 
adjective  element,  that  is,  it  is  of  the  nature  of  an  adjective  ;  as,  "  Indus 
trious  men."     "  Men  of  industry."    "  Men  who  are  industrious." 

Rem.  4.  —  Limiting  adjectives,  when  used  in  connection  with  qualifying, 
are  generally  placed  first;  as,  "  The  old  man."  "  This  valuable  hint.*' 
"  Ten  small  trees."  When  two  limiting  adjectives  are  used,  one  of  which 
is  an  article,  the  latter  is  usually  placed  first ;  as,  "  The  ten  command- 
ments." But  after  many,  such,  all,  what,  and  both  the  article  stands  next 
to  the  noun  ;  So  also,  after  adjectives  preceded  by  too,  so,  as,  or  Jiow ;  as, 
"  Many  a  man."  "  Such  a  man."  "  All  the  boys."  "  What  a  boy." 
u  Both  the  girls."     "  Too  great,  as  great,  so  great,  hoxo  great,  a  man." 

Rem.  5.  —  A,  or  an,  belongs  to  nouns  in  the  singular  number.  But  before 
few,  hundred,  or  thousand,  it  seems  to  belong  to  a  plural  noun ;  as.  '•  A 
few  men."     "  A  hundred  ships."     "  A  thousand  pounds." 

Rem.  6.  —  The  belongs  to  nouns,  either  singular  or  plural ;  as,  "  Th* 
man"     "  The  men." 

Rem.  7.  —  When  two  or  more  qualifying  adjectives  belong  to  a  noun 
representing  but  one  object,  the  limiting  adjective  should  not  be  repeated  ; 
as,  "  A  red  and  white  flag  ;  "  i.  e.,  one  flag  having  two  colors.  But  when  two 
or  more  such  adjectives  belong  to  a  nbun  used  to  represent  as  many  differ- 
ent objects  as  there  are  adjectives  employed,  the  limiting  adjective  must 
be  repeated ,  as,  "  We  saw  a  black,  a  white,  a  red,  andagray  horse ;  "  i.  e., 
four  horses  of  different  colors. 

Rem.  8.  —  Adjectives  which  imply  number  should  agree  in  number 
wrth  the  nouns  to  which  they  belong  ;  as,  "  All  men  ;  "  "  Several  men." 
When  two  numerals  precede  a  noun,  one  singular  and  the  other  plural, 
the  plural  should  generally  be  placed  next  to  the  noun  ;  as,  "The  first  fwc 
lines,"  not,  "  The  two  first  lines."  In  such  expressions  as,  "  Five  yoke  of 
oxen"  "  Ten  head  of  cattle,"  "  Fifty  sail  of  vessels,"  the  plural  adjective 
belongs  to  a  noun  in  the  singular. 

Rem.  9.  — When  objects  are  contrasted,  that  refers  to  the  first,  and  this 
to  the  last  mentioned  ;  as,  "  Wealth  and  poverty  are  both  temptations ; 
that  tends  to  excite  pride,  this  discontent." 

Hem.  10.  —  By  a  peculiar  idiom,  the  is  used  with  comparatives,  to  de- 
note proportionate  equality  and  is  used  adverbially;  as,  "  The  more  I  see 
it,  the  better  I  like  it." 

Rem.  11.  —  The  adjective  is  often  used  as  a  noun,  the  noun  to  which  it 
belongs  being  understood ;  as,  "  The  good  are  respectsd."  On  the  other 
hand,  the  noun  is  often  used  as  an  adjective  :  as.  "  Gold  beads  "  See 
fdic  matic  expressions,  p.  193. 


1/2  ENGLISH     <7  It  AM  MAR. 

Rem.  12. —  One  adjective  often  limits  the  complex  idea  expressed  "by 
toother  adjective  and  a  noun  ;  as,  M  Two  old  horses." 

Rem.  13.  —  The  predicate,  adjective  or  participle,  following  copulative 
verbs,  generally  indicates  the  manner  of  the  action,  while,  at  the  sams 
time,  it  denotes  some  property  of  the  subject;  as,  "The  boy  was  made 
sick  "     "  The  fruit  tastes  sweet."     "  The  horse  came  galloping." 

Rem.  14.  —  When  two  objects,  or  sets  of  objects,  are  compared,  the  com- 
parative degree  is  generally  used  ;  as,  "  George  is  taller  than  William,  or  io 
the  taller  of  the  two."     "  Our  oranges  are  sweeper  than  yours." 

Rem.  15.  —  When  more  than  two  objects  are  compared,  the  superlative 
degree  is  used  ;  as,  "  Achilles  was  the  bravest  of  the  Greeks." 

Rem.  16.  —  When  the  comparative  degree  is  used,  the  latter  term  should 
r1  wnys  exclude  the  former ,  as,  "  New  York  is  larger  than  any  other  city 
;>f  the  United  States."  "  He  was  wiser  than  his  brothers."  But  when 
the  superlative  is  used,  the  latter  term  should  always  include  the  former  ; 
as,  "  Rhode  Island  is  the  smallest  of  the  United  States." 

REM.  17.  — Each,  one,  either,  and  neither  belong  to  nouns  in  the  third 
person  singular.  Hence,  when  used  as  nouns,  verbs  and  pronouns  should 
agree  wita  them  accordingly;  as,  "Each  of  his  brothers  is  (not  are) 
well." 

Rem.  18.  — An  adjective  after  the  participle  or  infinitive  of  the  copula 
is  sometimes  used  abstractly,  referring,  it  may  be,  logically  (hut  not  gram- 
matically) io  some  indefinite  object ;  as,  "  To  be  good  is  to  be  happy." 

EsiiirLES  to  be  parsed  or  corrected  by  the  Remarks  under  Rule  V. 

Good  men  will  be  rewarded.  William  the  Conqueror  fought  at  the  battle  of  Has- 
tings.   Shakspeare's  Hamlet  lias  been  much  admired.     Then  they,  that  loved  the 

Lord,  spake  often  one  to  another.     The  ten  commandments  were  given  by . 

The  old has  often  been  repeated,     He  gave  a  thousand for  the  house. 

She  wore  a  blue  and  black  silk  dress.  You  may  read  the  two  first  pages.  Hope  is  as 
•strong  an  incentive  to  action  as  fear ;  this  is  the  anticipation  of  good,  that  of  evil. 

Of  all  other  idle  habits,  idleness  is  the  most .     Let  each  of  them  be  heard  in 

their  turn.     He  is  the  most of  all  the  rest.    Every  one  of  us  have  our  faults. 

Rule  VI.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  explain  or  identify 
another  noun  or  pronoun  is  put  by  apposition  in  the  same 
sase;  as,  "William  the  Conqueror  defeated  Harold,  the 
Saxon  king" 

Examples  to  be  analyzed  and  parsed :  — 

The  patriarch  Abraham  was  accounted  faithful.  The  Emperor  Nero 
whs  a  cruel  tyrant.  James,  the  royal  Scottish  poet,  was  Imprisoned  in 
Windsor  Castle.  In  the  fifth  century,  the  Franks,  a  people  of  Germany, 
invaded  France.  Frederic  William  III.,  King  of  Prussia,  son  of  Frederic 
William  II.,  and  Louisa,  Princess  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  was  born  Au- 
gust 3,  1770. 

Construct,  analyze,  and  parse  — 

Three  Examples  in  which  the  noun  in  apposition  shall  be  in  the 
nominative,  modifying  the  subject ;  three  in  which  it  shall  be  in  the 
nominative,  modifying  the  predicate  noun  ;  three  in  which  it  shall  be  in 
the  objectr  e,  modifying  a  noun,  used  as  the  object  of  a  verb  or  preposi- 
tion. 

Hsm.  1.  —  The  explanatory  noun  or  pronoun  must  denote  the  same  per- 
son or  thing  as  that  which  it  identifies.  It  usually  explains  by  showing 
the  office,  rank,  rapacity  occupation,  or  chnxacter,  of  the  principal  term; 
as,  "  Pptev  the  Hermit.      ';  John  the  Evangelist." 


SYNTAX RULE     VI. REMARKS.  ll'A 

Rem.  2.  —  When,  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  the  same  name  is  repeated, 
It  is  in  apposition  with  the  former  ;  as,  "  A  horse,  a  horse  !  my  kingdom  for 
ft  horse." 

Rem.  3.  —  When  the  limiting  noun  denotes  a  person,  it  generally  agrees 
with  the  limited,  in  number,  gender,  and  case  ;  as,  "  Paul  the  Apostle.'' 

Rem.  4.  —  Two  nouns  may  denote  the  same  person  or  thing,  and  even 
be  in  the  same  case,  but  yet  not  in  apposition.  A  noun  in  apposition  as< 
sumes  what  by  the  predicate  noun  is  affirmed ;  as,  "  Adam,  the  first  man." 
"Adam  was  the  first  man."  Even  when  two  n'uns  denoting  the  same 
person  or  thing  become  the  objects  of  certain  transitive  (copulative)  verbs, 
they  are  not  properly  in  apposition.  Compare  "  They  called  David  the 
psalmist,"  with  "  They  called  David,  the  psalmist,"  that  is,  who  was  the 
psalmist. 

Rem.  5.  —  A  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  plural  may  be  represented,  not  by 
one,  but  by  two  or  more  nouns,  which,  together,  are  equivalent  to  it ;  as 
"  The  victims  a  brother  and  a  sister."  The  reverse  of  this  rule  is  equal- 
ly true  ;  as,  "  Intemperance,  oppression,  and  fraud,  vices  of  the  age."  In 
the  case  of  the  reciprocal  pronouns,  each  other,  and  one  another,  the  first 
words,  each  and  one,  are  in  apposition  with  a  preceding  plural  noun  or 
pronoun,  or  with  two  or  more  singular  nouns  taken  conjointly  ;  as,  "  The 
boys  struck  one  an  other "=  The  boys  struck  —  one  struck  an  other; 
"  John  and  David  love  each  other  "  s=  John  and  David  love  —  each  loves 
the  other.  Each  and  one  are  in  the  nominative  case,  and  other  is  in  the 
objective  case. 

Rem.  G.  —  Two  or  more  proper  names,  or  a  title  and  a  proper  name,  ap- 
plied to  one  person,  though  in  apposition,  should  be  taken  as  one  complex 
noun ;  as,  "  George  Washington."     "  General  Gates." 

Rem.  7.  —  The  proper  name  of  a  place,  instead  of  being  put  in  apposi- 
tion with  the  common  name,  is  usuauv  governed  by  the  preposition  of;  as, 
"  The  city  of  Home." 

Rem.  8. — A  noun  is  sometimes  in  apposition  with  a  sentence,  and 
sometimes  a  sentence  with  a  noun  ;  as,  "  They  devoted  then  whole  time 
to  the  promotion  of  our  happiness  —  attritions  which  we  shall  not  soon  for- 
get." "  The  maxim,  Enough  is  as  good  as  a  feast,  has  silenced  many  a 
vain  wish." 

Rem.  9.  —  When  possessives  are  in  apposition,  the  sign  of  possession 
('.v)  is  commonly  used  with  only  one  of  them ;  as,  "  John  the  Baptist's 
head."     "  His  majesty  King  Henry's  crown." 

Rem.  10.  Sometimes  as,  denoting  capacity,  rank,  or  office,  intervenes  be- 
tween two  nouns,  one  of  which  is  in  apposition  with  the  other  ;  as,  *'  The 
moon  as  satellite  attends."  In  the  example,  "  I  am  pleased  with  my  posi- 
tion as  a  teacher,"  teacher  seems  to  be  in  apposition  with  the  expression 
my  position-,  denoting  the  same  person  as  my,  but  taking  the  same  case  as 
position* 

Examples  to  be  parsed  and  correct  d  by  the  Remarks  under  Rule  VI. 

Company,  villaaous  company,  bath  been  the  spoil  of  me.    Absalom,  the of 

,  died  in  battle.     Marcus  Tuilius  Cicero  was  a  great .     I  am  going  to  see 

my  mends  in  the  country  — they  that  we  visited  last  summer.  Queen  Victoria's  chil 
dron   are  carefully  educated.     I   am  pleased  with  her  improvement  as   a   scholar 

Jonathan  and  David  loved  each  other.      Go  ye  every  man   unto  his  own . 

Ambition,  interest,  honor,  all  concurred.     He  recovered  —  a  result  which  was  not 

expected.-  He  permitted  me  to  make  use  of  his ,  a  kindness  which  I  sh»«l 

not  soon  forjret. 

Rule  VII.     A  noun  or   pronoun,  used   to   limit   another 
noun  by  denoting  possession,  must  be  in  the  possessive  case 


174  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

us,  "  Stephen* *  courage  failed."     u  Their   fortune  was  am- 
ple."    "  Wtiose  work  is  this  ?  " 

Examples  to  be  analyzed  and  parsed :  — 

Charles's  resignation  filled  all  Europe  with  astonishment.  The  joy  of 
his  youth  was  great.  Rotha's  bay  received  the  ship.  Her  ways  are  ways 
of  pleasantness,  and  all  her  paths  are  peace.  A  mother's  tenderness,  and 
a  father's  care,  are  nature's  gifts  for  man's  advantage.  A  chieftain's 
daughter  seemed  the  majd.  Yet  my  last  thought  is  England's.  She 
etooped  her  by  the  runnel's  side.  Hushed  were  his  Gertrude's  lips.  Our 
harps  we  left  by  Babel's  streams. 

Construct,  analyze,  and  parse  — 

Twenty  Examples  in  which  a  possessive  noun,  o  pronoun,  shall  limit 
the  subject,  the  predicate,  a  noun  in  apposition,  or  a  noun  in  the  objec- 
tive after  a  transitive  verb  or  preposition. 

Caution  I.  In  writing  nouns  in  the  possessive,  never 
omit  the  possessive  termination.      Write  man's,  not  mans. 

Examples  to  be  corrected : — 

On  Lindens  hills  of  blood-stained  snow.  It  was  the  grand  sultans  pal 
ace.  The  nations  hopes  were  blasted.  Next  Mars,  Piazzis  orb  is  seen., 
It  is  against  the  laws  of  Plutos  empire.  His  brothers  offence  is  not  his. 
Midst  glorys  glance,  and  victorys  thunder-shout.  The  mans  story  was 
false.  If  of  Drydens  fire  the  blaze  is  brighter,  of  Popes  the  heat  is  mere 
regular  and  constant. 

Caution  II.  In  using  pronouns  in  the  possessive,  never 
insert  the  apostrophe,  nor  add  the  letter  n.  Write  theirs 
not  their 's.  Say  his,  hers,  ours,  yours,  theirs,  not  hisn, 
hem,  ourn,  yourn,  theirn. 

Examples  to  be  corrected :  — 

This  book  is  your's.  I  listened  to  it's  song.  The  slate  is  hisn.  This 
map  is  their's.  This  knife  is  mine,  and  not  yourn.  That  handkerchief 
is  hern.  These  sheep  are  ourn.  Will  you  drive  yourn  out  of  the  pasture  ? 
Our's  is  a  pleasant  task. 

Caution  III.  Never  make  the  limited  noun  plural  because 
the  possessive  is  plural.  Say  "  their  decision."  not  their 
decisions,  one  only  being  meant. 

Examples  to  be  corrected:  — 

I  will  do  it  for  your  sakes.  "We  intend,  for  our  parts,  to  follow  his  ad 
rice.  Their  healths  have  improved.  We  will  submit  to  our  lots.  It  was 
not  worth  their  whiles  to  remain  so  long  in  port. 

Rem.  1.  — The  relation  of  the  possessive  is  one  of  dependence.  There 
must,  therefore,  always  be  (expressed  or  understood)  the  name  of  the  ob- 
ject possessed  on  which  the  possessive  term  depends.  This  dependence 
may  be  shown  either  by  a  change  of  termination  or  by  a  preposition  ;  a», 
4  My  fattier 's  house  "  =  The  h  mse  of  my  father    "  The  kinc's  court "  =» 


SYNTAX  —  HULE    VIII.  175 

The  court  of  the  king.  The  possessive  term  always  limits  a  noun,  and 
nence  it  performs  the  function  of  an  adjective,  and  in  analyzing  may  be 
reckoned  as  an  adjective  element. 

Rem.  2. — The  limited  noun  is  often  understood;  as,  "This  pen  is 
Mary's  [pen]."'  "  We  worship  at  St.  Paul's  [church]."  "  This  is  a  book 
of  my  brother's  [books]."  "  Mine  [that  is,  my  task]  is  a  pleasant  task." 
\fter  mine,  thine,  hers,  ours,  yours,  and  theirs,  the  limited  noun  is  always 
understood. 

Hem.  3.  —  When  two  or  more  words  are  used  to  designate  one  object, 
ne  possessive  sign  is  affixed  to  the  last;  as,  M  General  George  Washing- 
ton's administration."  The  sign  of  the  possessive  belongs  to  the  group, 
ind  is  sometimes  applied  when  the  last  word  is  the  object  of  a  preposition  ; 
*s,  "■  The  King  of  England's  death."  Here  England  is  in  the  objective 
after  of 

Rem  1.  —  When  two  or  more  nouns  in  the  possessive  are  connected 
coordinately ;  first,  if  they  imply  the  possession  of  one  object  in  common, 
the  sign  is  applied  only  to'  the  last  ;  as,  "  Little  and  Broicn's  store;  "  but, 
secondly,  if  they  imply  the  possession  of  different  objects,  though  of  the 
s  une  name,  the  possessive  sign  should  be  applied  to  each  ;  as,  "  I  have  an 
Emerson's  and  a  Greenleafs  Arithmetic" 

Rem.  5.  —  The  limited  word  is  often  a  participial  noun;  as,  "I  am  in 
favor  of  his  bringing  the  dispute  to  a  speedy  close." 

Rem.  6.  —  Sometimes  the  possessive  sign  is  annexed  to  an  adjective 
used  as  a  noun  ;  as  "  This  is  the  wretched's  only  plea." 

Examples  to  be  parsed  and  corrected  by  the  Remarks  under  Rule  VII. 

He  is  at  the  governor's.  The  Representatives  House  convened  to-day.  I  assure  you 
it  is  theirs.  General  Franklin  Pierce's  administration  commenced  on  the  fourth  of 
Match,  1853.  John  and  James's  letters  have  been  received.  Day  and  Martin's  black 
mg  is  celebrated.    Lady,  be  thine  the  Christian's  walk. 

Rule  VIII.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  object  of  a 
transitive  verb,  or  its  participles,  must  be  in  the  objective 
case ;  as,  "  He  found  the  object  which  he  desired." 

Examples  to  be  parsed: — 

Ambition  makes  the  same  mistake  concerning  power  that  avarice  makes 
concerning  wealth.  If  you  have  performed  an  act  of  great  and  disinter- 
ested virtue,  conceal  it.  Imperial  Rome  governed  the  bodies  of  men,  but  did 
no ';  extend  her  empire  farther.  In  former  times,  patriots  prided  themselves 
on  their  own  poverty,  and  the  riches  of  the  state.  He  endeavored  to  in- 
culcate right  principles.  He  sought  to  follow  the  example  of  the  good. 
They  say  that  they  have  bought  it.  The  truly  great  consider,  first,  how 
they  may  gain  the  approbation  of  God.    He  inquired,  "  Who  comes  there  ?  " 

Construct,  analyze,  and  parse  — 

Five  Examples  in  which  a  noun,  five  in  which  a  personal  pronoun, 
five  in  which  a  relative  pronoun,  and  Jive  in  which  an  interrogative  pro- 
loun,  shall  be  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb ;  also  Jive  in  which  two  objects 
jhall  limit  either  of  the  verbs  in  Rem.  9  or  12. 

Caution  I.  Never  use.  the  nominative  as  the  object  of  a 
transitive  verb.     Say,  WJmm  did  he  visit  ?  not  who 


t-lQ  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

Examples   to  be  corrected :  — 

Who  did  yox.  xce  yesterday  ?  Who  did  \ie  marry  ?  They  that  help  us  wt 
should  reward.  He  who  committed  the  o  'fence  thou  shouldst  punish  not 
I,  who  am  innocent.  Who  should  1  find  but  my  cousin  r  Will  you  let  him 
and  I  sit  together  ?     I  did  not  know  who  to  seiid. 

Rem.  1.  —  When  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  used  to  complete  the  meaning 
of  a  transitive  verb,  without  the  aid  of  a  preposition  expressed  or  under- 
stood, it  is  called  the  direct  object ;  but  when  it  is  added  to  a  verb,  either 
transitive  or  intransitive,  to  show  that  to  or  for  which  anything  is,  or  in 
done,  or  that  from  which  any  thing  proceeds,  it  is  called  the  indirect  ob- 
ject ■  as,  "  Ellen  gave  an  apple  to  her  brother." 

Rem.  2.  — When  an  indirect  object  precedes  the  direct,  the  prepesitioa 
snould  be  omitted  ;  when  it  follows,  it  should  be  expressed  as,  "  I  lent 
him  a  book  "  =  I  lent  a  book  to  him. 

Rem,  3.  — The  indirect  object  is  sometimes  used  alone  witn  intransitive 
verbs,  sometimes  with  an  adjective,  and  in  a  few  instances  with  a  noun; 
as,  "  He  spoke  of  his  trials.  "  To  me  this  rule  is  obvious."  "  To  the 
hero  8va*  was  a  proud  day." 

Rem.  4.  — The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  may  be  an  infinitive,  or  a  sub- 
stantive clause ;  as,  "  I  love  to  write."     "  1  have  heard  that  he  was  sick." 

Rem.  5.  — When  a  substantive  clause  is  governed  by  the  verb  say,  or  its 
equivalent,  — 

(1.)  It  is  said  to  be  quoted  directly  (oratio  directa)  when  it  expresses 
the  thought  of  another  in  his  own  words  ;  as,  "  He  said,  I  will  go." 

(2.)  It  is  said  to  be  quoted  indirectly  (oratio  obliqua)  when  it  expresses 
the  thought  of  another  in  the  speaker's  words  ;  as,  "  He  said  that  he 
would  go." 

Rem.  6.  —  Some  intransitive  verbs  arc  folloAved  by  an  object  of  kindred 
signification ;  as,  "  He  ran  a  race."     "  She  dreamed  a  dream." 

Rem.  7.  —  The  object  of  the  active  verb  becomes  the  subject  of  the 

{>assive  ;  as,  "Pwomulus  founded  Rome" .-  Rome  was  founded  by  Romu- 
us. 

Rem.  8.  —  To  avoid  ambiguity,  the  object  should  be  placed  after  the 
verb,  especially  when  the  subject  and  object  are  both  nouns ;  as,  "  Alex- 
ander conquered  Darius,"  not,  "  Alexander  Darius  conquered ;  "  but  when 
the  subject  or  object  is  a  pronoun,  the  form  usually  determines  the  rela- 
tion ;  as,  "  Him  followed  his  next  mate." 

Rem.  9.  —  The  following  verbs,  make,  appoint,  elect,  create,  constitute, 
render,  name,  style,  call,  esteem,  think,  consider,  regard,  reckon,  and  some 
others,  not  only  take  after  them  a  direct  object,  but  predicate  of  it  another 
object,  which  may,  therefore,  be  called  its  attribute.  The  attributive  object 
may  be  either  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  a  verb.  "  They  made  him  an  officer." 
"  They  made  him  sick."  "  They  made  him  labor."  Though  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  attributive  object,  when  a  noun,  denotes  the  same  per- 
son or  thing  as  the  first,  it  is  by  no  means  in  apposition  with  it  In 
the  case  of  apposition,  the  principal  noun  completes  the  meaning  of  the 
verb,  and  the  second  limits  the  first;  as,  "They  called  Miles,  the  carpen- 
ter" But  in  the  case  of  two  objects,  (the  object  and  its  attribute,)  Doth 
are  necessary  to  complete  the  meaning  of  the  verb  ;  as,  "  They  called  Mites 
a  carpenter"  In  one  case,  the  second  noun  has  no  grammatical  relation 
to  the  verb ;  in  the  other,  it  is  directly  related,  both  to  the  verb  and  to  the 
first  noun.  In  the  first  example,  "  carpenter  "  should  be  parsed  as  a  noun 
in  the  objective,  put  in  apposition  with  the  first,  by  Rule  VI.  In  the  sec- 
ond examph?  "carpenter"  should  be  parsed  as  a  "noun  in  the  objective 


SYNTAX RULE  IX. ADVERBS.  177 

forming,  in  connection  with  "  Miles"  the  object  of  ''  called"  being  also  an 
attribute  to  the  first  object.  In  a  similar  way,  parse  "sick,"  and  '  labor," 
'in  the  above  examples  ;  or  one  may  be  called  tbe  first)  or  principal,  and 
the  otber  the  attributive  object  of  the  verb. 

Hem.  10.  —  This  construction,  in  many  instances,  may  be  traced  to  an 
abridged  proposition  in  which  the  infinitive  has  been  dropped  ;  as,  "  They 
considered  him  a  poet"  that  is,  to  be  a  poet.  In  fact,  the  infinitive  of  the 
copula  is  often  expressed,  the  first  object  representing,  in  the  objective,  what 
was  the  subject  nominative ;  the  second,  in  like  manner,  what  was  the 
predicate  nominative  before  the  proposition  Avas  abridged ;  as,  "  I  knew 
that  he  was  a  scholar."  "  I  knew  him  to  be  a  scholar."  In  such  cases  the 
infinitive  and  second  noun  form  the  attributive  object  of  the  verb,  the 
second  noun  being  in  the  objective  after  "  to  be." 

Rem.  11. — The  infinitive  of  any  verb  may  be  the  second  or  attributive 
object;  the  first  object  being  its  subject,  and  the  two  together  forming  a 
kind  of  abridged  proposition;  as,  "They  ordered  the  soldiers  to  march." 
"  They  ordered  that  the  soldiers  shoidd  march." 

Rem.  12.  —  The  following  verbs,  buy,  sell,  play,  sing,  get,  lend,  draw), 
send,  make,  pass,  write,  pour,  give,  teach,  leave,  bring,  tell,  do,  present, 
throw,  carry,  ask,  shoio,  order,  promise,  refuse,  deny,  provide,  and  some 
others,  take  after  them,  besides  a  direct  object,  an  indirect  object,  showing 
to  or  from  what  the  action  tends  ;  as,  "  Give  me  a  book." 

Rem.  13.  —  The  indirect  object  is  generally  said  to  be  governed  by  a 
preposition  understood. 

Rem.  14.  —  When  any  of  the  above  verbs  assume  the  passive  form,  the 
direct  object  generally  (though  not  always)  becomes  the  subject;  as,  "A 
book  was  given  me."  The  indirect  object  sometimes  becomes  the  subject ; 
as,  "He  was  asked  his  opinion."  "I  was  taught  grammar."  Ojnnion 
and  gra?nmar  are  in  the  objective  case  after  a  passive  verb. 

Rem.  15.  —  Instead  of  a  single  word,  or  an  infinitive,  a  substantive 
clause  may  become  one  of  the  objects  ;  as,  "  He  informed  me  that  the  boat 
had  sailed." 

Exercises  to  be  parsed  or  corrected  by  thr.  Remarks  urtler  Rule  VIII. 

Practice  will  make  her  a  ready  writer.  Yet  your  mistrust  cannot  make  me  a  trai- 
tor. Give  that  ring  to  me.  He  spoke  of  the  diligent  efforts  which  lie  had  made.  Let 
the  end  try  the  man.  Joseph  dreamed  a  droam.  Then  call  we  this  the  field  of  Agiu- 
court.  Darius  Crcesus  conquered.  1  will  glVe  them  an  everlasting  name.  Thou 
shalt  make  his  soul  an  offering  for  sin.  But  I  exhort  them  to  consider  the  Faerie 
Queen  as  the  most  precious  jewel  of  their  coronet.  They  denied  me  this  privilege. 
I  was  denied  this  privilege.  He  was  paid  the  money.  You  were  paid  a  high  com- 
pliment. He  said,  "  If  I  tell  you  the  truth,  ye  will  not  believe  me."  He  said  that  he 
preferred  to  take  a  different  course.    I  prayed  that  God  would  give  him  strength- 

Rule  IX.  Adverbs  are  used  to  limit  verbs,  particij  les, 
adjectives,  and  other  adverbs  ;  as,  "  Lightning  moves  sxoiftljj."' 

Examples  to  be  analyzed  and  parsed  — 

You  both  are  truly  welcome.  Speak  softly,  for  a  breath  might  wake  her. 
Yet  we  may  strongly  trust  his  skill.  How  heavily  her  fate  must  weigh  her 
down  !  Freely  to  give  reproof,  and  thankfully  to  receive  it,  is  an  indis- 
pensable condition  of  true  friendship !  How  happy  they  who  wake  no 
more  .  How  soon  man's  earthly  enjoyments  pass  away  !  How  easily  are 
men  diverted  from  a  good  cause  ! 

Construct,  analyze,  and  jmrsc  — 

Examples  in  which  a  verb  adjectm    or  an  adverb  shall  be  limited  ot 


ITS  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

tdvcrbs,  four  denoting  time,  four,  place,  four,  manner,  four,  nega 

riOX,  6t  DEGREE. 

Caution  I.  Two  negatives  should  never  be  employed  to 
express  a  negation  ;  as,  "  I  have  no  book,"  not,  "  I  haven't  no 
book  " 

Examples  to  be  corrected, :  — 

I  will  not  take  that  course  by  no  means.  I  did  not  like  neither  his  prin- 
ciples nor  his  practice.  I  cannot  write  no  more.  Nothing  never  can  justi- 
fy such  conduct.  He  will  never  be  no  better.  Neither  he  nor  no  one  else 
behoves  the  story.  I  never  go  nowheres.  I  am  resolved  not  to  trust  him, 
Deither  now,  nor  any  other  time.  Nj  one  knows  neither  the  causes  nor 
the  effects  of  such  influences. 

Caution  IT.  Avoid  the  use  of  an  adverb  when  the  quality 
of  an  object,  and  not  the  manner  of  an  action,  is  to  be  ex 
pressed  ;  as,  "  The  apple  tastes  siveet,''''  not  sweetly. 

Examples  to  be  corrected : — 

His  expressions  sounded  harshly.  Satin  feels  very  smoothly.  Give  him 
a  s-)on  and  decisive  answer.  Such  incidents  are  of  seldom  occurrence. 
The  then  emperor  issued  a  decree.  Did  he  arrive  safely  ?  She  seemed 
beautifully. 

Caution  III.  Avoid  the  use  of  no  to  express  negation, 
with  a  verb  or  participle ;  as,  "  I  shall  not  change  my  course 
of  action,  whether  you  do  or  not,"  not  no. 

Examples  to  be  corrected :  — 

Know  now  whether  this  be  thy  son's  coat,  or  no.  Tell  me  whethei  1 
shall  do  it,  or  no.     I  will  ascertain  if  it  is  true,  or  no. 

Caution  IV.  Never  use  now  before  that,  or  instead  of 
it  ;  as,  "  He  said  that  he  should  come,"  not  how  he  should 
come. 

EXAMPLES  to  be  corrected  :  — 

He  said  how  he  believed  it.  She  told  me  now  that  she  would  come  if 
%hc  could.     He  remarked  how  time  was  valuable. 

Rem.  1.  —  Some  adverbs,  instead  of  modifying  any  particular  word,  are 
either  independent,  or  are  used  to  modify  an  entire  proposition;  as,  yes, 
»w,  nay,  amen,  likewise  truly,  etc.  "  Will  you  go  ?  Yes."  "  Tridy,  God 
is  good  to  Israel." 

Rem.  2.  —  Anv  word  or  group  of  words  performing  the  office  of  an  ai 
verb  is  called  an  adverbial  element  or  expression.  If  it  be  a  group  of 
words,  it  should  first  be  disposed  of  as  an  adverb,  and  then  resolved  intl 
its  component  parts.     See   Analysis. 

Rkm.  3.  — An  adverb  or  adverbial  expression  should  be  placed  so  neai 
the  word  which  it  limits  as  to  make  its  relation  obvious ;  yet  no  element 
of  the  sentence  can  be  so  easily  transposed  without  causing  ambiguity  aa 


SYNTAX  —  IU?LE    X.  179 

the  adverbial.  It  may  be  placed  at  the  beginning,  m  the  middle,  or  at  the 
end  of  the  sentence  ;  as,  "  He  carefully  examined  the  document "  =  Care- 
fully did  lie  examine  the  document.     lie  examined  the  document  carefully . 

Rem.  4.  —  Adverbs  are  used  sometimes  to  limit  the  meaning  of  a  prep- 
osition, sometimes  a  phrase ;  as,  "  He  held  his  hand  exactly  over  the 
place."     "  We  were  absent  almost  a  year." 

Rem.  5.  —  Adverbs  are  themselves  sometimes  modified  by  phrases,  or 
clauses  ;  as,  "  He  left  four  years  afterward*."  "  He  came  rome  time  ago" 
"  He  run  faster  than  his  brother.'-' 

Rem.  6.  —  Conjunctive  abverbs  are  complex  words  usually  modifying 
two  words,  and  at  the  same  time  joining  an  adverbial  clause  to  the  word  on 
which  it  depends  ;  as,  "  We  shall  be  present  when  the  boat  arrives  "  =  We 
shall  be  present  at  the  time  at,  or  in  which,  the  boat  arrives.  Here,  when 
modifies  present,  instead  of  at  the  time,  and  arrives,  instead  of  in  which. 
It  also  connects  "  the  boat  arrives  "  to  present. 

Examples  to  be  parsed  by  the  Remarlcs  under  Rule  IX. 

Did  ye  not  lieat  it?  No.  Tie  remained  where  (lie  days  of  his  ywuth  were  passed. 
He  arose  before  the  sun.  Tlie  stream  flowed  silently  on.  Tliey  will  be  absent 
almost  three  years.  It  is  impossible  continually  to  be  at  work.  He  beard  the  news 
some  time  rum.  And  the  rest  will  I  set  in  order  when  I  come.  Verily  I  say  unto 
you,  Remember  thy  Creator  in  the  days  ot'tliy  youth. 

Rule  X.  The  nominative  case  independent  and  the  in- 
terjection have  no  grammatical  relation  to  the  other  parts 
of  the  sentence. 

Five  cases  occur  in  which  a  noun  or  pronoun  may  be  independent  or 
absolute.     It  may  be  so  — 

(1.)  By  direct  address ;  as,  "  Plato,  t.vou  reasonest  well." 

(2.)  By  mere  exclamation ;  as,  "  0  my  misfortune!" 

(3.)  By  pleonasm,  or  when  the  attention  is  drawn  to  an  object  before 
any  thing  is  said  of  it ;  as,  "  Harry's  flesh,  it  fell  away."  "  Gad,  a  troop 
shall  overcome  him." 

(4.)  When  in  connection  with  a  participle,  it  is  equivalent  to  a  proposi- 
tion, of  which  it  was  the  subject  befopc  the  former  was  abridged  ;  as,  "  He 
having  a**-'*^,  we  returned." 

(5.)  When,  in  an  abridged  proposition,  it  follows  the  infinitive  or  parti- 
ciple of  the  copula,  and  is  uncontrolled  by  a  preceding  noun  ;  as,  "I  waa 
not  aware  of  his  being  a  scholar."  "  To  be  a  scholar  requires  industry  and 
perseverance." 

Examples  to  be  analyzed  arid  parsed  :  — 

Fair  daffodils !  we  weep  to  see  you  haste  away  so  soon.  Odayrrost  calmk 
most  bright  !  the  fruit  of  this,  the  next  world's  bud  !  the  week  were  dark 
but  for  this  light.  The  pilgrim  fathers,  where  are  they  ?  He  having  given 
us  the  direction,  we  departed.  I  was  not  aware  of  his  being  the  preacher 
O  the  times !  O  the  manners !  Ah,  father  !  these  are  wondrous  words 
The  savage  rocks  have  drunk  thy  blood,  my  brother ! 

Construct,  analyze,  and  parse  — 

FIVE  Examples  containing  an  interjection,  and  two  for  each  of  the  five 
cases  of  nominative  absolute,  or  independent. 

Rem.  I.  — In  the  ast  two  cases,  though  the  noun  is  absolute,  the  group 


180  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

if  words  to  which  it  belongs,  including  the  participle  or  infinitive,  ha* 
•orne  connection  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

Rem.  2. —  In  ease  of  the  nominative  absolute,  that  is,  the  nominative 
preceding  a  participle,  sometimes  the  noun  or  pronoun  is  understood,  and 
sometimes  the  participle  ;  as,  "  Properly  speaking,  there  is  no  such  thing 
as  cold;  "  that  is,  toe,  or  one,  speaking  properly.  "  This  done,  and  all  is 
safe;  "  that  is,  being  done.  "  This  matter  at  an  end,  we  will  proceed;  ' 
ksing  at  an  end 

Rem.  3.  —  Both  of  the  last  two  cases  result  from  abridging  a  dependent 
clause.  The  abridged  construction  may  usually  be  resumed  to  a  corj&p.ete 
proposition. 

Examples  to  be  parsed  or  corrected  by  the  Remarks  under  Rule  X. 

Whose  gray  top  shall   tremble,  Aim   descending.     And  me,  what  shall do? 

IViis  done,  and  wo  are  sure  of  success.  The  prophets,  do  they  live  forever?  This 
Blatter  finished,  we  will  proceed.  There  all  thy  gifts  and  graces  we  display,  toe, 
siily  thee,  directing  all  our  way.  These  matters  arranged,  the  company  separated. 
Fair  pledges  of  a  fruitful  tree,  why  do  ye  fall  so  fast? 

Rule  XI.  Coordinate  conjunctions  are  used  to  connect 
similar  elements  ;  as,  "  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  were 
Jewish  patriarchs." 

Examples  to  be  analyzed  and  parsed :  — 

Mrs.  Unwin  and  Lady  Hesketh  were  friends  of  Cowper.  Clouds  and 
darkness  are  round  about  him,  righteousness  and  judgment  are  the  habita- 
tion of  his  throne.  They  were  united  by  ties  of  friendship  and  of  kindred. 
I  am  debtor  both  to  the  Greeks  and  to  the  barbarians. 

Construct,  analyze,  and  parse  — 

Ten  Examples  in  which  either  of  the  different  kinds  of  coordinate  con- 
junctions, connect  only  elements;  ten  in  which  they  connect  clauses. 

Caution  I.  In  a  series  of  coordinate  terms,  unless  great 
emphasis  is  required,  never  use  the  conjunction,  except  between 
the  last  two. 

Examples  to  be  corrected :  — 

They  confess  the  power,  and  wisdom,  and  love,  and  goodness  of  their 
Creator.  John,  and  James,  and  Henry,  and  Charles  will  return  this  even 
i/ig.     His  conduct  was  unkind,  and  unjust,  and  unmerciful. 

Caution    II.      Avoid  dissimilar   and   disproportionate 
coordinate  terms. 

Examples  to  be  corrected :  — 

He  neither  came  nor  was  sent  for.  We  pervert  the  noble  faculty  of 
speech  when  we  use  it  to  the  defaming,  or  to  disquiet  our  neighbors.  We 
hope  that  we  shall  hear  from  him,  and  that  he  has  returned.  I  always 
have,  and  I  always  shall  be  of  this  opinion.  The  work  was  executed  with 
rapidity  ar.d  promptly.     1*  is  a  region  distinguished  by  many  charming 


SYNTAX  —  RULE  III.  —  REMARKS.  181 

rarieties  of  rural  scenery,  and  which  may  le  termed  the  Arcsiia  of  Soot 
land. 

Rule  XIL  When  a  verb  or  pronoun  relates  to  two  or 
ir.cre  nouns  connected  oy  c  coordinate  conjunction,  — 

(1.)  If  it  agrees  with  them  token  conjointly,  it  must  be 
in  the  plural  number. 

(2  )  But  if  it  agrees  with  them  taken  separately,  it  mi5** 
be  of  the  same  number  as  that  which  stands  next  to  it. 

(3.)  If  it  agrees  with  one,  and  not  the  other,  it  must  take 
the  number  of  that  one. 

EXAMPLES. 

"  Charles  and  his  sister  were  absent,  but  they  were  sent  for."  "  Charles 
or  his  sister  was  absent."  "  Charles  or  his  sisters  were  absent."  "  Charles, 
and  not  his  sister,  was  absent." 

Examples  to  be  analyzed  and  parsed :  — 

Where  was  it  when  winds  and  clouds  were  its  only  visitors,  and  where 
the  sun  and  blue  heaven  by  day,  and  the  moon  and  stars  by  night,  alone 
looked  down  and  beheld  it,  the  same  as  they  behold  it  now  ? "  One  day  the 
poor  woman  and  her  idiot  boy  were  missed  from  the  market-place.  Neith- 
er his  vote,  his  influence,  nor  his  purse,  was  ever  withheld  from  the  cause 
in  which  he  had  engaged.  Neither  the  captain  nor  the  sailors  were  saved. 
Whether  one  person  or  more  were  concerned  in  the  business  does  not  appear. 

Construct,  analyze,  and  parse  — 

Four  Examples  in  which  a  plural  verb  must  agree  with  two  singular 
nominatives,  four  in  which  a  pronoun  in  the  singular  shall  relate  to  two 
or  more  singular  nouns. 

Rem.  1.  —  In  the  following  cases,  nouns  in  the  singular  seem  to  be  taken 
conjointly,  and  yet  the  verb  and  pronoun  should  be  singular  :  — 

(1.)  When  the  coordinate  nouns  denote  the  same  person  in  different  ca- 
pacities; as,  "This  great  statesman  and  orator  died  lamented  by  all  Aw 
friends." 

(2.)  When  the  coordinate  nouns  are  considered  separately,  by  means  of 
such  limiting  words  as  each,  every,  ox  no;  as,  "Each  d?.y  and  each  hour 
brinys  its  own  duties  and  trials."  "  Every  apple  and  every  pear  teas  take U 
from  its  place."     "  No  book  and  tio  slate  should  be  left  out  of  its  place.'1 

(3.)  When  the  coordinate  nouns  are  distinguished  with  emphasis  by 
means  of  not,  only,  too,  as  toell  as,  or  when  there  is  an  emphatic  enumera- 
tion of  individuals  ;  as,  "  George,  and  not  James,  is  at  his  task." 
"  Truth,  and  truth  only,  is  worth  seeking  for  its  own  sake."  "  The  man, 
and  ids  servant  too,  was  rewarded."  "  The  father,  as  well  as  his  son,  uxu 
in  fault."     "  Thine  is  the  kingdom,  and  the  power,  and  the  glory." 

(4.)  When  the  coordinate  nouns  are  regarded  by  the  mind  as  represent- 
ing one  thing ;  as,  "  Bread  and  milk  is  excellent  food  for  children."  "  Th» 
borse  and  chaise  is  in  its  place." 

Rem.  2.  —  The  Rule  and  Rem.  1  have  reference  only  to  the  number  of 

16 


-82  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

the  verb  and  pronoun.  It  often  happens  that  the  coordinate  words  aie  of 
different  persons.  When  the  coordinate  parts  are  of  different  persons,  tlio 
verb  or  pronoun  agrees  with  the  first  rather  than  the  second,  and  with  tkt 
second  rather  than  the  third  ;  as,  "  Thou  and  thy  sons  Avith  thee  (that  is, 
ye)  shall  bear  the  iniquity  of  your  priesthood."  "John,  thou  and  /  (that 
is,  loe)  are  attached  to  our  country." 

Rem  3.  — When  the  coordinate  parts  are  each  singular,  and  of  different 
genders,  several  cases  may  arise  :  — 

(1.)  Ihe  verb  may  relate  to  them  conjointly,  while  the  pronoun  may  relate 
to  but  one;  as,  "James  and  his  sister  tcere  destroying  her  bonnet" 
u  James  and  his  sister  were  destroying  his  cap." 

(2.)  Tne  pronoun  may  relate  to  them  taken  conjointly,  while  the  wrl 
relates  to  them  taken  separately  ;  as,  "  James  or  his  sister  lias  destroyed 
their  dictionary,"  the  dictionary  being  theirs  by  a  joint  ownership. 

(3.)  When  the  pronoun  has  a  common  reference  to  both  coordinate 
nouns  taken  conjointly,  the  gender  cannot  be  distinguished  by  the  pro- 
noun, since  the  latter  is  plural,  and  consequently  has,  in  English,  the 
same  form  for  all  genders. 

(4.)  When  the  pronoun  refers  to  two  or  more  coordinate  nouns  taken 
separately,  there  is  no  personal  pronoun,  in  English,  applicable  to  each,  and 
there  is  an  inherent  difficulty  in  constructing  the  expression  properly  ;  as, 
"  John  or  Ellen  has  lost  his  or  her  pencil."  To  use  his  alone  or  her  alone 
would  reveal  the  ownership,  which  is  supposed  to  be  unknown.  Hence  it  does 
not  avail  to  say  that  the  masculine  is  preferred  to  the  feminine,  and  the 
feminine^to  the  neuter ;  for  either  would  become  explicit,  as  in  case  (1.)  To 
avoid  this  difficulty,  it  is  best  to  recast  the  sentence,  or  so  construct  it  aa 
to  escape  'such  a  dilemma.  Yet,  contrary  to  the  general  rule,  frequent 
instances  occur  in  which  the  pronoun,  in  such  cases,  is  put  in  the  plural, 
and  thus  the  gender  is  concealed;  as,  "Then  shalt  thou  bring  forth  that 
man  or  that  woman  unto  thy  gates,  and  shalt  stone  them  with"  stones,  till 
they  shall  die." 

Rem.  4.  —  When  each  of  the  coordinate  parts  is  denoted  by  the  same 
word,  and  that  a  singular  noun  referring  to  different  objects,  and  each,  ex- 
cept the  last,  is  understood —  being  represented  by  some  modifying  word, 
the  agreement  of  the  verb  or  pronoun  follows  the  general  rule  ;  as,  "  A 
Webster's,  a  Worcester's,  and  a  Richardson's  dictionary  were  consulted  ;  " 
that  is,  three  dictionaries.  "  A  literary,  a  scientific,  a  wealthy,  and  a  poor 
man  wei'e  assembled  in  one  room." 

Examples  to  be  parsed  and  corrected  by  Remarks  under  Rule  XII. 

T iris  philosopher  and  poet  was  banished  from  his  country.     Every  limb  and  every 

appears  with  their  respective  grace.     Ambition,  and'  not  the  safety  of  the  state, 

toere  concerned.  Bread  and  cheese  is  good  for  a  luncheon.  Then  I,  and  you,  smi 
all  of  us  fell  down,  whilst  bloody  treason  flourished  over  us.  John  and  Mary  at* 
taking  care  of  her  garden.  Charles  and  Ellen  are  learning  their  lessons.  Neither  be 
r..ir  I  am  capable  of  it.     Wayland's  and  Upham's  Moral  Philosophy  was  consulted. 

if  efined,  educated,  and people present.     Has  not  sloth,  or  pride,  or  ill 

t«-»;per,  or  sinful  passion  misled  you  from  the  path  of  sound  and  wise  conduct? 

ltut,S  XI11.  A  preposition  is  used  to  show  the  relation 
of  its  object  to  the  word  on  which  the  latter  depends  ;  as 
11  George  went  into  the  garden"  "  A  life  of  virtue  is  a  life 
of  happiness." 

Examples  to  be  analyzed  and  parsed:  — 

■  cail  to  you  with  all  my  voice.     From  end  tc  end,  from  cliff  to  lake,  'twat 


&YNTAX RULE     XIV.  183 

free.  Her  tears  were  now  flowing  -without  control.  She  is  like  seine  ten- 
der tree,  the  pride  and  beauty  of  the  grove  —  graceful  in  its  form  bright 
in  its  foliage,  but  with  the  worm  preying  at  its  heart. 

Construct,  analyze,  and  'parse  — 

Five  Examples  in  which  the  preposition  and  object  shall  limit  a  noun; 
five  in  which  the  phrase  shall  limit  a  verb,  and  five  in  which  it  shall 
limit  an  adjective  or  adverb. 

Rem.  1.  —  The  noun  or  pronoun  following  the  preposition  is  always  de- 
pendent on  some  term,  usually  a  preceding  one,  and  the  preposition  is  used  to 
shore  that  dependence.  Properly  speaking,  the  objective  is  not  the  object  of 
the  preposition,  but  of  the  preceding  term.  In  the  case  of  the  transitive  verb, 
there  are  two  terms,  the  verb  itself  and  the  objective,  and  the  relation  be- 
tween them  is  closer,  if  possible,  than  between  those  in  which  the  preposi- 
tion is  used  ;  the  objective  is  not  called  the  object  of  that  relation,  but 
rather  of  the  antecedent  term,  the  verb.  Yet  custom  makes  the  noun  the 
object  of  the  preposition. 

Rem.  2. — Sometimes  the  antecedent  term  is  omitted,  and  sometimes 
the  subsequent ;  as,  "  In  a  word,  he  is  ruined  "  —  To  express  all  in  a  word, 
&c.  He  looked  arottnd  [him.]  When  the  object  is  understood,  the  prep- 
osition is  usually  parsed  as  an  adverb.  For,  used  before  an  infinitive  and 
its  objective  subject,  when  the  group  is  taken  as  the  subject  of  a  proposi- 
tion, has  no  antecedent,  term;  as,  '*  F(tr  him  to  lie  is  base."  The  Lj  of 
the  infinitive,  when  both  together  constitute  the  subject,  represents  no  re- 
lation to  an  antecedent  term  ;  as,  "  To  lie  is  base." 

Rem.  3.  —  Between  and  betwixt  refer  to  two  objects  ;  among jpiAanwnqsi 
to  more  than  two;  as,  "  He  walked  between  the  trees,"  (two  trees.)  "He 
walked  among  the  trees,"  (many  trees.) 

Rem.  4.  —  ("are  should  be  observed  to  employ  the  proper  preposition  to 
show  the  relation  intended.  The  proper  use  of  the  prepositions  is  best 
learned  from  a  careful  observation  of  the  custom  of  good  writers. 

Exercises  to  he  parsed  or  corrected  by  the  Remarks  under  Ride  XIII. 

He  was  well  known  to  all  tlie  country  round*  In  vain  lie  tried  every  remedy. 
For  him  to  take  such  a  course  was  not  unexpected.  Thou  pendulum  betwixt  a 
smile  and  tear.  I  am  disappointed  0/ the  work.  The  story  is  founded  in  facts.  I 
left  my  hooks  to  home.  I  entertain  no  prejudice  to  him.  That  was  agreeable  with 
his  principles.     They  resided  at  Italy.     There  is  eternal  war  between  me  and  thee 

Rule  XIV.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  object  of  a 
preposition  must  be  in  the  objective  case  ;  as,  u  The  ruins 
of  the  Parthenon  stand  upon  the  A'cropolU  in  the  city  of 
AtliensP 

Examples  to  be  analyzed  and  parsed :  — 

A  similar  improvement  may  be  made  of  the  memory  of  our  good  deeds 
What  ground  of  hope  is  there  so  sure  to  his  spirit,  next  to  the  mercy  of 
his  Gcd,  and  the  intercession  of  Christ,  his  Savior  ?  It  was  not  long  be 
fore  he  returned  with  his  man,  whom  he  introduced  to  me  as  a  person  of 
exceeding  honesty  ;  and  we  went  into  the  yard  all  together. 

Construct,  analyze,  and  parse  — 

(1  )  Examples  in  which  of,  or  any  other  preposition  with  a  noun,  shall 
describe  another  noun. 

(2.)  Examples  in  which  in,  at,  during,   since,  about,   after,    bqfore. 


ifr4  El  GLISH     GRAMMAR. 

between,  oy,  ere,  from,  till,  to,  and  toward,  with  a  noun,  shall  denote  the 
time  of  an  action,  or  answer  the  question  When?  How  longt  or  Hoio 
often  f 

(3.)  Examples  in  which  aboard,  about,  above,  across,  against,  along, 
amidst,  among,  around,  at,  athwart,  before,  behind,  below,  beneath,  beside,, 
beticeen,  beyond,  by,  down,  from,  in,  into,  on,  out  of,  over,  round,  through. 
throughout,  to,  toioard,  under,  underneath,  up,  upon,  with  a  noun,  t-:hall 
denote  the  place  of  an  action,  or  answer  the  question  Where  ? 

(4.)  Examples  in  which  from,  for,  by,  out  of,  with  a  noun,  shall  dtr.ote 
tho  cause,  source,  or  origin  of  an  act,  answering  the  question  Why  f  On 
what  account  1  or  From  what  source  t 

(5.)  Examples  in  which  loith,  without,  in,  on,  by,  within,  with  a  noun, 
shall  shoAV  the  manner  of  an  action,  or  answer  the  question  How  f 

Rem.  1.  —  The  preposition  is  omitted,  or  rather  seldom,  if  ever,  used, 
before  nouns  denoting  time,  measure,  distance,  value,  or  after  the  words 
like,  near,  nigh,  worth;  as,  "The  wall  is  six  feet  high."  "We  walked 
t.venty  miles  that  day"  "  He  helped  a  worthy  man,  and  is  not  a  penny 
poorer."  "  He  is  like  [to]  his  father."  "  They  live  near  [to]  the  city.* 
"We  came  nigh  [toj  the  gale."  "The  book  is  worth  a  dollar."  The 
word  worth  is  by  some  called  a  preposition  ;  but  it  can  be  predicated  of  a 
noun,  like  an  adjective,  and  it  can  be  qualified  by  an  adverb  ;  as,  "  The 
matter  is  well  worth  your  attention."  True,  it  is  not  easy  to  supply  a  prep- 
osition after  it,  nor  is  it  after  high  or  revolves  in  the  following  examples : 
"  The  house  is  forty  feet  high."  "  The  wheel  revolves  ninety  times  in  a 
minute." 

Rem.  2.  —  Prepositions  are  sometimes  followed  by  adjectives  or  adverbs, 
an  object  in  some  cases  being  understood;  as,  "In  vain"  =  In  a  vain 
manner,  on  high,  in  secret,  at  first,  at  once,  from  thence,  from  above,  till  noiv, 
forever,  till  lately,  &c. 

Rem.  3.  —  Than  before  whom  seems  to  perform  the  office  of  a  preposi- 
tion; as,  "  Than  whom  none  higher  sat."  This  construction  is  rare  in 
modern  usage,  and  should  be  avoided  as  anomalous. 

Exercises  to  be  parsed  or  corrected  by  the  Remarks  under  Rule  XIV. 

We  walked  a  great  distance  this  morning.  The  child  is  like  his  mother.  Pray  to 
thy  Father,  which  is  in  secret.  Tliey  could  not  be  convinced  at  first.  That  has 
never  occurred  until  recently.  It  was  worth  the  money.  Near  yonder  copse,  the 
village  preacher's  modest  mansion  rose.  I  was  resolved,  at  least,  to  know  my  let 
ters.    He  came  from  afar.    He  lived  in  the  country,  near  the  city. 

RtjLE  XV.  Subordinate  connectives  are  used  to  join  dis- 
similar elements  ;  as,  "  He  that  hath  pity  on  the  poor  lend* 
eth  to  the  Lord." 

Examples  to  be  analyzed  and  parsed :  — 

We  have  brought  nothing  into  this  world ;  therefore  we  shall  take  nothing 
out.  While  there  is  life,  there  is  hope.  However  friendly  he  might  ap- 
pear, his  heart  was  full  of  anger.  Herod  wished  to  know  where  the'  star 
had  appeared.  Whether  the  moon  has  an  atmosphere  has  not  been  ascer- 
tained. He  that  plants  trees  loves  others  beside  himself.  What  comes 
from  the  heart  goes  to  the  heart.  Time  will  bring  to  light  whatever  is 
hidden.  The  more  we  serve  God,  the  better  we  serve  ourselves.  As  far  as 
the  eye  could  see,  all  was  ruin  and  desolation.  Work  as  long  as  you  can. 
The  more  one  has.  the  more  he  requires.  Revenge  always  costs  more  than 
it  is  worth.  That  you  may  be  loved,  be  deserving  of  love.  If  you  would 
thrive,  you  must  rise  at  five. 


ST*  TAX  —    ABRIDGED     PROPOSITIONS.  18& 

Construct,  an aly ze,  and  parse  — 

Five  Examples  in  which  who,  which,  and  that  shall  join  an  adjective 
■lausc  to  the  subject ;  five  in  which  they  shall  join  the  clause  to  the  cnject 
of  a  verb  or  preposition ;  five  in  which  they  shall  join  the  clause  to  the 
predicate  nominative. 

Five  Examples  in  which  who,  or  whoex^er,  shall  connect  an  adjective 
chaise  to  some  indefinite  subject  or  object  (he  or  any  one)  understood. 

Five  Examples  in  which  what,  which,  whatever ;  whichever,  whatsoever, 
whichsoever,  shall  first  limit,  as  an  adjective,  a.  definite  noun  expressed,  and 
then  connect  to  it  an  adjective  clause  ;  five  in*  which  they  shall  limit  cr 
represent  an  indefinite  noun  (thing)  understood. 

Tex  Examples  in  which  that,  whether,  when,  why,  where,  how,  who, 
which,  what,  introduce  substantive  clauses  used  as  the  subject  ;  (see 
Rem.  1  ;)  ten  in  which  they  are  used  as  an  object  of  a  transitive  verb. 

Tex  Examples  in  which  where,  whither,  whence,  wherever,  whitherso- 
ever, as  far  as,  as  long  as,  farther  than,  shall  connect  an  adverbial  clause 
of  place  to  a  verb  or  adjective. 

Fifteex  Examples  in  which  when,  while,  whilst,  as,  before,  after,  ere, 
till,  until,  since,  whenever,  as  long  as,  as  soon  as,  the  moment,  the  instant 
shall  connect  adverbial  clauses  denoting  time  to  a  verb  or  adjective. 

Examples  for  each  of  the  following  catisai  connectives :  because,  for, 
Q3. whereas,  since ;  (conditional,)  if,  though,  except,  provided  that;  (pur- 
pose,) that,  that  not,  lest ;  (adversative, )  though,  although,  notwithstand- 
ing, however,  while,  and  as,  (with  an  adjective  —  "  Hard  as  it  was") 

Examples  for  each  of  the  following,  denoting  manner :  (correspondence,) 
as,  just  —  OS,  so  —  as  ;  (consequence,)  so  —  that,  such  —  that ;  (comparison 
of  equality,)  as  —  as  ;  (comparison  of  inequality,)  than,  more  —  than 
less  —  than;  (proportionate  equality,)  the  —  the,  the  more  —  the  more,  or 
the  less. 

Rem.  1. —  That,  whether,  or  the  various  interrogatives  when,  where, 
&c,  when  used  to  introduce  a  substantive  clause  employed  as  the  subject 
of  a  proposition,  do  not  connect  the  clause  to  an  antecedent  term,  since 
the  subject  can  be  subordinate  to  no  other  part  of  the  proposition.  These 
connectives  thus  used  serve  to  convert  a  principal  proposition  into  a  sub- 
ordinate substantive  proposition  which,  like  any  other  noun,  may  be  used 
as  the  subject. 

Rem.  2.  —  In  many  cases  the  subordinate  connective  has  a  correspond- 
ing word  in  the  principal  clause  called  the  correlative  ;  as,  "  Then—  when, 
there  —  where,  if —  then,  though — yet,  so  —  that,  so — as,  as  —  as,  the,  this, 
that,  these,  those  —  who,  that]  or  which. 

Rem.  3.  —  The  subordinate  connective  alway?  unites  the  clause  which  it 
introduces  to  the  word  which  the  clause  limit:  ;  as,  "I  perceive  that 
you  need  assistance." 

Rem.  4.  —  Subordinate  connectives  are  a  kind  of  proposition  placed  be- 
fore a  sentence  which  is  to  be  converted  into  a  no\m,  adjective,  or  adverb 
Hence  their  piosition  is  almost  invariably  at  the  head  of  the  clause. 


ABRIDGED  PROPOSITIONS. 

A  proposition  is  said  to  be  abridged  when  its  predicate  is 
changed  to  an  infinitive  or  to  a  participle,  the  former  partak* 


16 


186  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

mg  of  the  i-ature  of  a  noun,  the  latter  parte  King  of  the  nature 
of  an  adjective  ;  as, "  The  light  shines."  "  The  light  to  shine" 
or  "  for  the  light  to  shine."  M  The  light  shining"  or  u  having 
shined  '' 

A  complex  sentence  may  be  reduced  to  a  simple,  or  a  contract 
ed  complex  sentence,  by  abridging  its  subordinate  clause  ;  as, 
•  A  man  who  perseveres  will  prosper  "  —  A  persevering  man 
will  prosper.  "  When  we  entered  the  city,  we  found  all  in 
commotion  w  rr  On  entering  the  city,  we  found  all  in  com- 
motion. "  I  knew  he  was  an  honest  man  "  =  1  knew  him 
to  be  an  honest  man. 

Rem.  —  The  connective  of  the  subordinate  clause  is  dropped ;  as,  "  1 
thought  that  he  was  alone "  —  I  thought  him  alone.  But  in  such  ex- 
amples as,  "  I  know  not  what  to  do ;  whom  to  send  —  which  to  leave  — 
where  to  go  —  when  to  stop  —  how  to  begin,  the  connective  is  not  dropped, 
since  it  contains  something  material  to  the  sense,  not  previously  expressed. 
See  page  104,  Rem.  2. 

The  infinitive  is  commonly  employed  in  abridging  a  sub- 
stantive clause,  and  the  participle  in  abridging  the  adjective 
or  adverbial  clause. 

When  the  predicate  consists  of  the  copula  and  attribute, 
the  infinitive  or  participle  of  the  copula  indicates  the  abridg- 
ment;  and  the  attribute  remains  unchanged,  unless  some- 
thing in  the  dependence  of  the  abridged  expression  causes  a 
change. 

EXERCISE. 

Abridge  the  dependent  clauses  in  the  following  complex  sentences  : — 
Vapors  rise,  because  they  are  light.  If  wishes  were  horses,  beggars 
would  ride.  If  we  subdue  not  our  passions,  they  will  subdue  us.  That 
fine  feathers  make  fine  birds,  we  can  see  every  day.  Therein  consists  our 
true  merit,  that  we  fulfil  our  duties.  Our  own  conscience  will  tell  us 
whether  our  actions  are  right.  Those  who  play  with  edge  tools  must  ex- 
pect to  be  cut.  He  should  have  silver  on  his  tongue  whose  purse  is 
«mpty.  When  we  shall  die  is  kindly  concealed  from  us.  The  sluggard 
knows  not  how  sweet  is  repose  after  labor.  Whom  we  love  we  also  esteem. 
Superstitious  persons  imagine  that  there  are  ghosts.  Never  expect  other* 
will  always  do  what  they  promise. 


SYNTAX RULE     XVI.  187 


THE  SUBJECT  IN  THE  ABRIDGED  EXPRESSION. 

I.  The  subject  of  the  dependent  proposition  is  retained 
m  the  abridged  expression,  when  it  has  not  been  expressed 
in  the  principal  clause, — 

(1.)  In  the  nominative  absolute,  (see  Rule  X.;)  as,  "  When  the  party 
arrived,  the  dinner  was  prepared  "  =  The  parti/  having  arrived,  the  dinner 
Was  prepared. 

(2.)  In  the  possessive  limiting  the  abridged  predicate  used  as  a  noun; 
•s,  "I  was  not  aware  that  David  had  come  "  =  I  was  not  aware  of  D<i' 
vid's  having  come. 

(3.)  In  the  objective,  when  the  abridged  expression  follows  a  transitive 
terb,  or  a  preposition,  (see  Rule  VIII.,  Rem.  11;)  as,  "I  knew  that  he 
was  present  "  =  I  knew  him  to  be  present.  "  It  was  improper  that  he 
should  go  "  s=  It  was  improper  for  htm  to  go. 

II.  The  subject  may  be  dropped  when  its  equivalent  is 
expressed  in  the  principal  clause  ;  as,  "  A  prince  who  was 
renowned  for  his  courage  succeeded  to  the  command  "=:A 
prince  renowned  for  his  courage,  &c.  u  I  wish  that  / 
might  go  "  =  I  wish  to  go. 


THE  PREDICATE  NOUN  OR  PRONOUN. 

The  predicate  noun  or  pronoun  is  always  retained,  ap- 
pearing, — 

(1.)  In  the  nominative  case,  (a.)  when  the  subject  remains  in  the  nom- 
inative ;  as,  "  Since  he  was  her  te/icher,  she  must  learn  "  =  lie  being  her 
teacher,  she  must  learn  ;  (b.)  when  (the  subject  being  dropped)  it  is 
placed  in  apposition  (with  or  without  the  participle  of  the  copula)  with  a 
noun  in  the  nominative  ;  as,  °  Paid,  who  was  an  apostle  "  =  Paul  [being]  an 
apostle,  (c.)  When  the  subject  is  so  changed  as  to  have  no  control  over 
its  case  ;  as,  I  am  sure  that  this  man  is  a  foreigner  "  =  I  am  sure  of  this 
man's  being  a  foreigner.  "  I  am  certain  that  it  is  he  "  =  I  am  certain  of 
its  being  he. 

(2.)  In  the  objective  case,  (a,)  when  the  subject  is  changed  to  the  objec- 
tive; as,  "  I  believe  that  it  is  he  "  —  I  believe  it  to  be  him.  (b.)  When 
(the  subject  being  dropped)  it  is  put  in  apposition  with  an  objective;  as, 
"  We  found  a  fossil  which  is  called  the  trilobite  "  =  We  found  a  fossil 
called  the  trilobite 


THE   INFINITIVE. 

Rule  XVI.     The  infinitive  has  the  construction  of  the 
noun,  with  the  signification  and   limitations  of  the  verb,  and, 


ISS  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

whou  dependent,  is  governed  by  the  word  which  it  limits 
as,  "  To  err  is  human."      "  They    desire  to   travel    ?n   a 
foreign  country."     "  He  wishes  to  obtain  a  treatise  on  the 
deposition  of  dewy 

Note.  —  It  will  be  seen  that  the  first  infinitive,  to  err,  is  a  noun  in  the  nominafrv* 
case,  and  the  remaining  two,  to  tnvel  and  to  obtain,  are  used  as  nouns  in  the  objec- 
tive case,  both  being  limited  as  if  they  were  finite  verbs. 

Examples  to  be  analyzed  and  parsed  :  — 

Full  of  admiration,  I  hardly  know  how  to  express  my  devotion.  We 
ought  to  learn  as  long  as  we  live.  Let  any  man  resolve  to  do  right  now, 
leaving  then  to  do  it  as  it  can ;  and  if  he  Avere  to  live  to  the  age  of  Me- 
thuselah, he  would  never  do  wrong.  We  did  think  it  writ  down  in  our  duty 
to  let  you  know  of  it.  And  what  wealth  would  not  many  a  sinner  give  to 
purchase  that  which  the  wealth  of  both  the  Indies  is  too  poor  to  buy  ? 
We  stretched  out  a  willing  hand  to  heal,  to  help,  to  guide,  to  save.  I  might 
compare  these  faculties  to  tbe  valuable  friends,  who  are  always  found  ready 
to  minister  to  our  amusement,  and  participate  in  our  gayety,  and  equally 
ready  to  counsel  our  sober  hours,  and  assist  our  emergencies  with  effectu- 
al help. 

The  infinitive  may  be  used  with  or  without  a  subject ;  as,  "  We  wish  you 
to  stay."     "  We  wish  to  stay." 

I.  The  infinitive  may  have  a  subject  in  the  objective ;  as, 
"  They  ordered  him  to  leave." 

(1.)  The  infinitive  of  the  copula  may  also  have  &  predicate  objective  ;  as, 
"  I  knew  him  to  be  a  preacher." 

(2.)  The  infinitive  with  its  subject  may  be  the  subject  of  a  proposition  ; 
the  phrase  must  then  be  introduced  by  for ;  as,  "For  you  to  deceive  is 
criminal."     "  For  him  to  be  a  scholar  is  impossible." 

(3.)  The  infinitive  and  its  subject  may  be  made  the  object  of  a  transitive 
verb,  or  of  the  preposition  for ;  as,  "  He"  ordered  the  horse  to  he  harnessed." 
"  They  considered  him  [to  be]  a  traitor."  "  They  appointed  him  [to  be] 
chairman."  See  Itule  VIII. ,  Rem.  10  and  11.  "  They  ordered  some 
water  for  the  boy  to  drink." 

(4.)  When  the  infinitive,  (with  or  without  its  objective  subject.)  fol- 
lows bid,  dare,  let,  need,  make,  see,  hear,  and  feel,  in  the  active  voice, 
the  "  to  "  is  omitted  ;  as,  "  I  saw  him  do  it."  "  They  let  him  go."  "  We 
heard  them  sing." 

II.  The  infinitive  usually  occurs  without  its  subject  :  as 
4  They  wish  to  ivalk.'' 

(1.)  The  infinitive  alone  may  be  used  as  the  subject  of  a  proposition  bj 
Rule  I  ;  as,  "  To  retaliate  is  censurable." 

(2.)  The  infinitive  alone  may  be  used  as  the  attribute  of  a  propositios 
ky  Rule  II. ;  as,  "  To  obey  is  to  enjoy." 

Note. —  When  the  infinitive  is  thus  used,  it  denotes,  (1.)  An  equivalent  term  ;  as 
K  To  pray  is  to  supplicate."  (2.)  What  is  possible  or  obligatory  ;  a?,  "  The  passage  i 
to  bef'ound."  "  Our  duty  it  to  be  done."  (3.)  What  is  settled  oi  determined  upon 
»6,  "  The  work  is  to  commence  to-morrow  " 


SYNTAX  — HULK     XVII.  180 

'x3.)  The  inflictive',  without  its  subject,  may  be  the  object  of  a  transitive 
?erb,  a  preposition,  or  it  may  be  used  to  complete  the  meaning  of  some 
intransitive  verbs  ;  as,  "  lie  wishes  to  remain."  "  They  are  about  to  go." 
''  She  seems  to  sleep." 

(4.)  The  infinitive  may  be  used  as  an  adjective  element  ox  noun  in  apposi* 
tion,  limiting  another  noun  ;  as,  "  Time  to  come."  "  A  desire  to  go  " 
"A  hope  to  recover."     "A  wish  to  stay." 

(5.)  The  infinitive  may  be  used  adverbially,  — 

(1.)  To  denote  purpose,  or  motive ;  as,  "  What  went  ye  out  to  see  ?" 

Note.  —  In  this  use  the  infinitive  is  sometimes  said  to  be  absolute  ;  as,  "  To  con- 
fess Vie  truth,  I  was  in  fault." 

v2.)  To  denote  a  result,  after  too,  than,  so  —  as ;  as,  "  He  is  too  proud 
to  beg."  "  He  is  wiser  than  to  attempt  such  an  enterprise."  "  Be  so  good 
as  to  hear  me." 

Rem.  1.  —  The  preposition  for  should  never  be  used  before  the  infinitive 
employed  to  express  motive  qx purpose  ;  also  the  sign  to  should  not  be  used 
at  the  close  of  a  sentence  ;  as,  "  He  went  to  see,"  not  for  to  see.  "  He 
spoke,  or  intended  to  speak,"  not  intended  to. 

Rem.  2.  —  The  infinitive  is  often  understood;  as,  "They  considered 
him  [to  be]  upright." 


EXERCISE    ON   THE    INFINITIVE. 

I  have  brought  a  book  for  you  to  read.  Johnson  declared  wit  to  consist 
in  finding  out  resemblances.  These  passages  prove  that  materialists  wiU 
sometimes  find  Hume  to  be  a  very  dangerous  ally.  For  him  to  assert  and 
deny  the  same  sentiment  on  different  pages,  is  proof  of  the  instability  of 
his  opinions.  It  was  well  for  him  to  die  at  his  post,  with  his  armor  on. 
I  heard  him  repeat  whole  pages  of  poetry.  Few  things  are  more  destruc- 
tive to  the  best  interests  of  society  than  the  prevalent  but  mistaken  no- 
tion that  it  requires  a  vast  deal  of  talent  to  be  a  successful  knave.  It  is  a 
disgrace  to  be  the  author  of  such  a  report.  To  take  away  the  benevolent 
affections  from  the  moral  world  would  be  like  extinguishing  the  sun  from 
the  natural.  I  love  to  roam  over  the  green  fields.  He  seems  to  think  the 
rule  inapplicable  to  his  case.  They  appear  to  rest  upon  the  solid  earth. 
A  desire  to  see  his  face  once  more  induced  us  to  attempt  the  journey.  The 
work  is  to  be  commenced  to-morrow.  To  be  good  is  to  be  happy.  They 
remained  to  see  what  was  to  be  done.  He  was  too  feeble  to  write  a  letter 
Will  you  be  so  good  as  to  pass  me  that  book  ? 

Rule  XVII.  Participles  have  the  construction  of  adjec- 
tives and  nouns,  and  are  limited  like  verbs ;  as,  "  He,  stoop- 
ing down,  and  looking  in,  saw  the  linen  clothes  lying ;  yet 
went  he  not  in."  "  A  habit  of  sincerity  in  acknolw edging 
faults  is  a  guard  against  committing  them." 

Examples  to  be  analyzed  and  parsed ;  — 

He  employs  part  of  his  time  in  teaching  hif  brother  arithmetic.  There 
n  no  doubt  of  Ms  being  a  great  statesman.  Ihe  young  maiden  was  seen 
standing  on  the  shore,  exposed  to  the  merciless  winds,  "and  extending  her 
hands  towards    heaven.      Whom  not  having  seen  we   love ;    in  whom 


190  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

oelieving  we  rejoice.  In  avoiding  one  error,  do  not  fall  into  another.  By 
consulting  the  best  authors,  he  became  learned.  Draw  not  thy  bow  before 
naving  fixed  thy  arrow.  A  drowning  man  will  catch  at  a  straw.  Stretch- 
ing from  horizon  to  horizon,  losing  itself  like  a  limitless  wall  in  the  clouds 
above,,  it  came  pouriag  its  green  and  massive  waters  onward,  while  the 
continual  and  rapid  crash  of  falling  forests,  and  crusbed  cities,  and  uplom 
mountains,  thus  prostrated,  one  after  another,  under  its  awful  power,  and 
the  successive  shrieks  that  pierced  the  heavens,  rising  even  above  the 
roar  of  the  on-rushing  ocean,  as  city  after  city,  kingdom  a  iter  kingdom, 
disappeared,  produced  terror  and  horror  inconceivable,  indescribable. 

I.  The  participle  used  as  an  adjective  assumes  of  its 
subject  what  the  verb  asserts  ;  as,  "  Hyacinths  blooming." 
"  Hyacinths  bloom." 

(1.)  The  participle  may  be  used  wholly  as  an  adjective  ;  it  is  then  called 
a  participial  adjective,  and  is  placed  before  the  noun  ;  as,  "  The  rising  sun.'* 
"  The  roaring  billows." 

(2.)  The  participle  may  be  used  like  an  adjective,  having  the  same  signi- 
fication and  limitations  as  the  verb;  the  participle,  with  the  words  which 
limit  it,  is  then  called  the  participial  construction ;  as,  "  Encouraged  by  this 
magnificent  invitation,  the  inhabitants  of  the  globe  considered  labor  as 
their  only  friend." 

(3.)  The  participle  of  the  copulative  verbs  may  be  followed  by  a  predicate 
nominative,  (1.)  When  the  noun  or  pronoun  to  which  it  belongs  is  nomin- 
ative. (2.)  When  the  noun  or  pronoun  to  which  it  logically  belongs  is 
changed  to  the  possessive;  as,  "He  being  an  accomplished  ivriter."  "I 
have  heard  of  his  being  an  accomplished  writer." 

(4.)  The  participle  of  copulative  verbs  may  be  followed  by  a  predicate  ob- 
jective when  the  noun  or  pronoun  to  which  it  belongs  is  in  the  objective  ;  as, 
M  We  regarded  him  as  being  a  good  writer"  "  lie  intrusted  his  son  to 
a  gentleman  named  Edric." 

(5.)  The  participle,  like  the  adjective,  may  be  used  with  the  copula  to 
form  the  predicate  ;  but  in  this  construction  it  is  regarded  as  a  form  of  the 
verb  ;  as,  "They  were  riditig."     "  He  was  deceived." 

II.  TJie  participle  may  be  used  either  wholly  as  a  noun, 
or  as  a  noun  having  the  meaning  and  limitations  of  the 
verb ;  as,  "  It  is  pleasant  to  walk  at  the  rising  of  the  sun.*' 
"We  should  avoid  giving  pain  to  others." 

(1.)  The  participle  used  wholly  as  a  noun  is  preceded  by  an  article  or 
adjective,  and  followed  by  of;  as,  "  The  sighing  of  the  poor."  "  The  err- 
ing of  the  needy."  In  this  case  the  participle  cannot  be  limited,  like  the 
Verb. 

(2.)  The  participle  having  the  construction  of  the  noun  with  the  mean- 
ing and  limitations  of  the  verb  may  be  the  subject,  or  predicate  nominative 
or  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  or  preposition  ;  as,  "  Loving  our  neigh- 
bor as  ourselves  is  fulfilling  the  law."  "  Steali?ig  is  taking  without  lib- 
erty." "  We  should  avoid  breaking  a  promise."  "  On  a^jproaching  ths. 
house,  the  sound  of  a  bell  was  faintly  heard." 

(3.)  In  this  construction  the   participle  is  called  the  jMr&ieipie1  «"•■•< 
md  as  such,  may  bo  limited  by  a  noun  or  proa  urn  in  the  poss?Wv,.  " 


/ 

SYN1AX —  PECULI  iRITIES    AND     IDIOMS.  191 

".  What  d>  you  think  of  his  writing  a  letter —  his  being  a  writer  ?  "    Foi 
this  last,  see  I.  3,  above. 

EXERCISE    ON   THE   PARTICIPLE. 

A  far  more  interesting  personage  in  their  mythology  was  the  god  of  the 
air.  It  is  doing  injustice  to  the  heroic  war  god  of  antiqtiity  to  identify 
him  with  this  monster.  We  expect  the  dancing  master  to  teach,  our  chil- 
dren "  manners,"  as  well  as  the  act  of  cutting  awkward  capers  to  music 
Why  is  the  experiment  of  an  extended  republic  to  be  rejected  ?  He  came 
near  being  devoured  by  a  panther.  These  islanders  are  far  from  being 
cannibals.  The  ease  is  well  worth  considering.  They  came  upon  him  with- 
out  his  being  apprised  of  their  approach.  The  urchin's  becoming  so  re- 
spectable a  man  surprised  every  one.  The  gentleman's  reputation  as  a 
scholar  was  the  cause  of  his  being  appointed  professor  of  rhetoric. 

They  narrowly  escaped  being  taken  prisoners.  Being  convinced  of  his 
guilt,  we  resolved  to  punish  him.  We  descried  a  vessel  stripped  of  its 
masts.  Having  declined  the  proposal,  I  determined  on  a  course  suited  to 
my  own  taste.  They  have  said,  Come,  and  let  us  cut  them  off  from  being 
a  nation.  He  had  been  there  but  a  short  time,  before  the  old  man  alighted 
from  his  gig,  with  the  apparent  intention  of  becoming  his  guest.  Such 
persons  commence  by  being  their  own  masters,  and  finish  by  being  their 
own  slaves.  He  had  just  been  reading  a  book  called  the  "Young  Alan's 
Guide."  I  cannot  understand  adding  three  columns  at  once.  On  our 
arriving  at  the  pier,  all  was  commotion. 


PECULIARITIES    AND   IDIOMS. 

I.    IN  THE   CLASSIFICATION,  USES,   AND  PROPERTIES 
OE   WORDS   AND    SENTENCES. 

A..     The  same  Word  as  different  Parts  of  Speech. 

What  is     (L)  An  interrogative  pronoun  ;  as,  "  What  do  you  see  ?  " 

(2.)  A  compound  relative  ;  as,  "  He  received  what  he  wanted  " 
(3.)  An  interjection;  as,  "  What!  have  you  come  ?  " 
(4.)  A  limiting  adjective;    as,    "He   gave  me  what  books    I 
needed." 
•  (5.)  An  adverb;  as,  "The  enemy  having  his  country  wasted, 
what  (partly)  by  himself,  and  what  (partly)  by  the  sol 
diers,  findeth  succor  in  no  place." 

*HAT  I«      (1.)  A  subordinate  conjunction ;  as,  "  I  know  that  he  is  faith 
ful." 
(2.)  A  relative  pronoun  ;  as,  "  An  idler  is  a  watch  that  ^which , 

wants  both  hands." 
(3.)  A  limiting  adjective ;  as,  "  That  book  is  soiled." 

Afi  ib  (1.)  Part  of  a  compound pi'eposition ;  as,  'Ms  to  that,  said  tht 

pendulum.' 

(2).   \  subordinate  vnnective,  when  it  denotes,  — 


192  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

(a.)  Manner ;  as,  "  Speak  as  you  think." 

(b.)  Comparison  of  equality  ;  as,  "  He  is  as  large  as  hia 

brother." 
(c.)  Time ;  as,  "  I  arrived  as  (when)  he  was  taking  hiu 

leave." 
{d.)  Cause  or  reason  ;  as,  "  As  (since)  a  youth  was  theij 

leader,  what  could  they  do  ?  " 
(e.)  Correspondence ;  as,  "  As  the  door  tunieth  on  hi 

hinges,  so  doth  the  slothful  man  upon  his  bed.'' 

Non  — Besides  the  above  Uhes,  it  takes  the  place  of  the  relative  pronoun  (thoi  gh 
never  properly  a  relative)  after  such,  same,  and  many;  as,  "  Such  as  I  have,  gi\e  1 
tusto  thee." 

(3.)  A  mere  index  of  apposition,  or  of  a  peculiar  relation  of 
some  property  to  its  object;  as,  "  The  moon  as  satellite 
attends."     "  They  regarded  him  as  innocent." 
BUT  18        (1.)  A  coordinate  conjunction;  as,  "  He  is  not  sick,  but  faint* 
(2.)  A  preposition ;  as,  "  They  gave  him  all  but  (except)  one.'" 
(3.)  An  adverb;  as,  "  We  saw  him  but  (only)  twice." 
Much  is     (1.)  A  noun  ;  as,  "  Where  tnuchis  given,  much  is  required." 
(2.)  An  adjective  ;  as,  "  Much  ado  is  made." 
(3.)  An  adverb  ;  as,  "  I  was  much  pleased  with  the  visit." 
Fob  is        (1.)  A  subordinate  connective ;  as,  "  The  battle  ceased  along  tho 
plain,  for  the  bard  had  sung  the  song  of  peace." 
(2.)  A  preposition ;  as,  "The  soldier  fought  for  glory." 

Note.  —  The  same  is  true  of  after,  before,  since,  till,  until,  &c. 

When  is     (1.)  An  interrogative  adverb;  as,  "  When  did  you  arrive  ?  " 

(2.)  A  subordinate  connective  ;  as,  "  When  sinners  entice  thee, 
consent  thou  not." 

Note.  —  The  same  is  true  of  all  the  interrogatives ;  as,  where,  why,  how,  &c,  &.& 


EXERCISE. 

Parse  the  following  words  :  — 

What !  have  you  but  one  book  for  me  ?  I  knew  that  that  was  the  tree 
that  was  girdled.  As  yoti  have  what  you  will  need  for  the  present,  I  shall 
give  much  of  what  remains  to  your  sister  as  a  reward.  All  but  three  of 
these  rivers  are  navigable  ;  but  you  must  recollect  I  shall  tell  you  this  but 
once ;  for  it  is  unpleasant  to  repeat. 


"B.     The  same  Part  of  Speech  in  Different  Rela- 
tions and  Uses. 

I .    The  noun  may  be  used,  — 
(a.)  As  a  noun. 

(1.)  In  the  nominative  as  subject ;  as,  "  Kings  reign." 
(2.^  In  the  nominative  as  attribute ;  as,  "  He  is  a  pupil." 


6FNTAX  —  SAME     PART     OF     SPEECH.  193 

(3.)  In  the  nominative  in  apposition;  as,  "  George  the  king  reigned." 
(4.)  In  the  nominative  independent  ;  as,  "  0,  George,  the  king." 
(5.)  In  the  possessive  always  as  a  modifier;  as,  "  David's  harp." 
(8.)  In  the  objective  as  subject  of  an  infinitive ;  as,  "  I  told  John 

to  go." 
(7.)  In  the  objective  as  attribute  after  an  infinitive  ;  as,  "  I  took  it 

to  be  John." 
(8.)  In  the  objective  after  a  transitive  verb  ;  as,  "  He  writes  Otters." 
(9.)  In  the  objective  after  a  preposition;  as,  "  He  sits  upon  a  sofa.'* 
(10)  In  the  objective  in  apposition;  as,  "They  visited  John  the 

printer." 

r;3.)  As  an  adjective,  or  adjectively. 

(1.)  Without  a  preposition;  as,  "  A  ^o/d  pencil."    "  A  safety  lamp." 

Note  —  Nouns  thus  used  should  be  called  adjectives,  [n  many  languages  they 
undergo  some  change  of  termination,  and  in  some  instances  in  our  own;  as,  "  A 
brazen  gate."  But  we  say,  "  A  brass  kettle."  So,  "  A  golden  censer/' hut  never 
*'  A  gulden  watch."    See  "  Idiomatic  Constructions." 

(2.)  With  a  preposition  ;  as,  "  A  man  of  wisdom  "  =  A  wise  man. 
\c.)  As  an  adverb,  or  adverbially. 

(1.)  Without  a  preposition;  as,  "  He  did  it  four  times  a  day." 

Note.  — In  such  constructions,  it  is  customary,  hut  scarcely  necessary,  to  suppose 
o  preposition  understood. 

(2.)  With  a  preposition  ;  as,  "  He  labored  with  assiduity. 

2,  The  pronoun  may  be  used,  — 

(a.)  The  personal  in  all  resjjects  like  the  noun. 

(b.)  The  relative  and  interrogative  the  same,  with  the  excep- 
tion that  they  can  never  be  used  in  apposition,  and  the  relative  sti- 
dom,  if  ever,  as  predicate  nominative. 

££,   The  adjective  may  be  used, — 

(a.)  As  an  adjective.  \ 

(1.)  To  limit  or  qualify  a  noun  ;  as,  "  Good  men." 
(2.)  To  denote  a  predicated  quality  ;  as,  "  He  is  ivise." 

(b.)  As  a  noun. 

(1.)  Wholly  as  a  noun,  {a.)  When  it  is  taken  abstractly ;  as,  "  Good- 
ness," "  Virtue;  "  (b.)  When  it  receives  the  plural  ending  ;  &b, 
"  The  blacks  are  abused." 
(2.)  To  stand  as  a  noun,  when  the  latter  represents  some  indefinite 
person   or   thing;  as,  "The  wicked.'       "The  good."      "The 
true." 
f«  )  As  an  adverb,  or  adverbially,  when  by  enallage  it  qualifies  a  verb ; 
as,  "  They  fall  successive,  and  successive  rise ;  "  or  when  in  the 
predicate  it  expresses  a  quality  which  the  subject  acquires   by 
means  of  an  action  ;  as,  "  The  bread  was  baked  l»iwm ; "  that  is 
the  bread  became  brown  by  means  of  baking. 

17 


194  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

4.  The  verb  may  be  used, — 

(a.)  As  a  predicate,  in  the  various  forms,  modes,  ten*.,   *,.  urn* 

hers,  and  persons. 

(b.)  As  a  noun. 

(1.)   Wholly  so,  wilAi  some  substantive  termination,  wrier    taken. 

abstractly;  as,  "Move,1'  "  Movement"     "Act"  "  Acaoii." 
(2.)  Partially  so,  when  it  has  the  meaning  and  limitations  of  the 

verb,  with  the  construction  of  the  noun  ;  as,  "  To  see  the  sun 

is  pleasant."     "  Seeing  the  sun  is  pleasant."  (See  Rules  XVI. 

and  XVII.) 
{c.)  As  an  adjective,  rchen  the  action  is  assumed  of  the  subject. 

(1.)  It  may  be  wholly  an  adjective;   as,  "  A  floating  population." 
(2.)  Partially  so,  when  it  has  the  construction  of   the  adjective 

and  the  limitations  of  the  verb ;  as,  "  The  flag  floating  in  the 

breeze."     (See  Rule  XVII.) 

Xote.  —  The  verbal  noun  can  be  put  in   all  the  relations  of  the  noun,  except  the 
possessive  case. 

5.  The  adverb  is  used,  — 

(a.)  To  limit  a  verb,  adjective,  or  other  adverb;  as,    "Speak  distinct- 
ly."   "  He  was  very  dull."     "  He  moves  too  slowly." 
(b.)  Soinetimes,  though  not  properly,  as  an  adjective ;  as,  "  Thine  often 
infirmities." 

6.  Prepositions  are  used.,  — 

(a.)   To  shore  relations ;  as,  "  The  love  of  truth." 
(b.)  As  adverbs.     "  Will  you  walk  in?  " 

(c.)  Rarely  as  adjectives ;  as,  "  The  above  quotation."     "  The  rain  it 
o'er." 

7.  Conjunctions  are  used  simply  as  connectives. 

8.  Interjections  are  used  to  express  ^lotions. 

Rbm.  —  Any  word,  Avhatever  be  its  classification,  when  used  merely  M 
a  word,  is  a  noun.     The  s;ime  may  be  said  of  a  group  cf  words 


C»     The  same  Word,  Element,  or  Sentence  in  its 
Different   Properties.* 

A  word  may  be  considered, — 
(a.)  .4*  the  representative  of  a  sound. 

(1.)  It  may  be  classified  as  a  monosyllable,  dissyllable,  trisyllabh 
polysyllable. 


*  The  object  of  this  division  is  to  present,  at  a  glance,  the  different  methods  which 
may  be  resorted  to,  in  order  to  give  interest  and  variety  to  drill  exercises  in  langvage. 
The  study  of  language  becomes  dull  and  dry  when  parsing  alone  is  attended  to  "''n 
teacher  may  resort  to  any  or  all  of  these  method?. 


SYNTAX  —  SAME  ELEMENT.  195 

(2.)  It  may  be  analyzed  into  its  syllables.  The  accented  syllable 
may  be  pointed  out.  As  an  exercise  on  accent,  the  syllables, 
in  turn,  iray  be  accented  by  the  pupil. 

(3.)  Each  syllable  may  be  separated  into  its  vowel  and  consonant 
elements,  and  each  may  be  described. 

ryb.)   As  tO  its  FORMATION. 

(1.)  It  may  be  simple,  derivative,  or  compound. 

(2.)  If  derivative,  or  compound,  it  may  be  analyzed  into  its  primi- 
tive part  or  parts,  its  prefixes  and  suffixes.  The  effect  of  each 
may  be  given,  and  all  the  alterations,  or  changes,  which  the  parts 
undergo. 

^5  ;    As  to  its  meaning  or  USE. 

(1.)  What  part  of  speech  is  it  ?  Why  ?  Is  it  ever  used  as  any 
other  part  of  speech  ?     Give  an  example. 

(2.)  Parse  it.  Now,  suppose  it  to  be  changed  in  any  of  its  modifi- 
cations, as  number,  person,  gender,  case,  mode,  tense,  voice, 
degree  of  comparison ;  what  other  changes  in  the  sentence 
must  take  place  to  correspond  ? 
3.)  Change  its  relation  in  the  sentence,  or  construct  another  sen- 
tence in  which  it  shall  be  either  a  different  part  of  speech,  or 
in  a  different  relation. 

(d.)  As  to  its  relation  in  construction. 

(1.)  Is  it  a  principal  or  a  subordinate  term,  or  is  it  both  ? 

(2.)  Point  out  its  principal  term ;  point  out  its  subordinate  term. 
Read  it  with  each. 

(3.)  Is  its  relation  represented  or  unrepresented?  If  represented, 
point  out  the  relation-word,  and  describe  it.  Read  it  with  its 
superior  term,  omitting  the  relation-word,  thus :  "  Trees  gar- 
den; "  then  read  it,  inserting  the  words,  "  Trees  of  the  garden." 

"e.)  As  to  the  number  of  functions  it  performs. 

(1.)  Does  it  perform  but  one  office,  requiring  but  one  rule  of  syn- 
tax, or  does  it  perform  two  or  more  ?    How  many  rules  are 
applied  in  parsing  a  personal  pronoun  ?     A  relative  pronoun  ? 
The  relative  what,  when  placed  before  its  antecedent  ? 
(2.)  Explain  it  in  all  its  functions. 

'jf.~)   As  tO  its  APPLICATION. 

(1.)  Is  it  correct  in  its  application,  or  it  is  misapplied1! 

(2.)  Is  it  elegantly  applied,  or  has  it  merely  a  jilain  or  corimon  ap- 
plication ? 

(3.)  Is  it  used  figuratively  ?    What  is  the  figure  ? 

(4.)  Is  the  word  modern  or  antique  f  as,  "  Fetch  '  =  bring. 
"  Wist  "  =  know.     "  Let "  =  hinder. 

(5.)  Is  it  low,  vulgar,  or  provincial?    If  so,  give  the  correct  word. 

(6.)  What  other  word  has  nearly  the  same  application  ?  Subst* 
tute  it,  and  point  out  the  difference. 

•7.)  Can  the  expression  be  improved  ?    If  so,  improve  it- 

An  element  may  be  considered,  — 
(a.)  As  a  whole. 

(1.)  If  it  is  a  single  word,  it  may  then  be  parsed;  if  a  vhraas 


196  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

clattse,  it  may  first  be  parsed  as  if  it  were  one  word,  by  calling 
it  substantive,  adjective,  or  adverbial,  as  the  case  may  be,  and 
by  giving  its  construction  as  if  it  were  a  single  part  of  speech. 

(2.)  Its  relation  may  be  given,  whether  subordinate  or  principal; 
also  its  antecedent  or  subsequent  term. 

(3.)  It  may  be  transformed  by  expanding  or  abridging  it,  and  in  ita 
transformed  state  it  may  "be  regarded,  as  a  whole,  equivalent  to 
the  element  in  its  former  state. 

(6.)  As  composed  of  parts. 

(1.)  If  it  is  a  phrase,  point  out  the  connective  and  object. 

(2.)  If  it  is  a  clause,  point  out  the  connective,  and  analyze  the  clause. 

(3.^  If  it  is  complex,  point  out  and  dispose  of  the  basis,  then  the 

term  depending  upon  this,  then  the  next,  and  the  next,  in  the 

order  of  dependence. 
(4.)  If  it  is  compound,  point  out  its  component  parts,  and  dispose 

of  them  separately,  giving  first  their  relation   (coordinate)  to 

each  other,  and  then  their  common  relation  (subordinate)  to 

the  term  on  which  they  depend. 
(5.)  If  it  is  transposed,  restore  it  to  its  natural  position. 
(6.)  If  elliptical,  supply  the  ellipsis. 

(7.)  If  incorrectly  constructed,  point  out  the  error,  and  correct  it. 
(8.)  If  it  is  left  blank,  or  given  as  an  exercise  to  be  constructed, 

construct  it,  in  the  relation,  form,  condition,  or  modification 

required. 

A  sentence  may  be  considered,  — 
(a.)  As  a  whole. 

(1.)  Is  it  declarative)  interrogative,  imperative,  or  exclamatory? 
(2.)  Is  it  simple,  complex,  or  compound  f 
(3.)  Is  it  close  or  loose  in  its  structure  ? 

(4.)  Transform  it  from  declarative  to  interrogative,  &c. ;  from  com- 
pound to  complex,  &c. 

\b.)  As  composed  of  parts. 

(1.)  Analyze  it  into  its  elements. 

(2.)  Trace  the  relation  of  the  most  remote  word  up  to  the  subject, 
or  the  relation  of  the  subject  down  to  the  most  remote  term, 
pointing  out  all  the  connectives  or  relation-words. 

(3.)  Reconstruct  the  sentence  ;  take  some  other  noun  or  pronoun, 
standing  in  a  remote  relation,  and  make  that  the  subject,  or 
change  it  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  arrangement,  unity, 
or  harmony  of  its  parts. 

(4.)  Construct  a  sentence  so  as  to  make  it  represent  a  scene  or  men- 
tal pictwe,  relating  to  clouds,  dew,  vapor,  rain  ;  a  meadoio,  a 
vaUey,  a  stream  of  water,  a  flower,  a  flock  of  birds,  &c,  &c.,  &c. 

Note.  —  By  exercises  varied  as  above,  and  in  many  other  ways,  such  as  the  in- 
genuity of  the  teacher  will  suggest,  the  whole  subject  of  language  may  be  made  in- 
tensely interesting  to  children.  It  will  be  well,  at  length,  to  analyze  whole  paragnphs 
into  the  sentences  which  compose  them,  pointing  out  the  relation  of  rach  semesK-e 
lo  the  general  thought. 


SiNTAX  —  FIGURES    OF     ETYMOLOGY.  \91 


11      PECULIARITIES   IN   THE   FORM,    CONSTRUCTION, 
AND  APPLICATION  OF   WORDS. 

These  peculiarities  are  called  figures.  A.  figure  is  a  deviation  from  the 
ordinary  form,  construction,  and  application  of  a  word.  Hence  figures  are 
divided  into  those  of  Etymology  Syntax,  and  Rhetoric. 


FIGURES  OF  ETYMOLOGY. 

A  figure  of  Etymology  is  a  deviation  from  the  ordinary 
form  of  a  word. 

Figures  of  Etymology  consist  either  in  a  defect,  an  excess,  or  a  change, 
in  some  of  the  elements  of  a  word. 

Aphccresis  cuts  off  a  letter  or  syllable  from  the  beginning 
of  a  word  ;  as,  'gainst,  'gan,  for  against,  began. 

Syncope  removes  a  letter  or  syllable  from  the  middle  of  a 
ivord  ;  as,  o'er,  e'er,  lov'd,  for  over,  ever,  loved. 

Apocope  cuts  off  a  letter  or  syllable  from  the  end  of  a 
word  ;  as  th\  tho\  for  the,  though. 

Prosthesis  adds  a  letter  or  syllable  to  the  beginning  of 
a  word  ;  as,  adown,  enchain,  for  down,  chain. 

Epenthesis  adds  a  letter  or  syllable  to  the  middle  of  a 
word  ;  as,  preventative,  retractation,  for  preventive,  retrac- 
tion.    This  figure  seldom  occurs  in  English. 

Paragoge  adds  a  letter  pr  syllable  to  the  end  of  a  word  ; 
as,  withoutew,  bounden,  for  without,  bound. 

Synavresis  contracts  two  syllables  into  one  ;  as,  thoiCri 
'tis,  for  thou  art,  it  is. 

Dicer esis  separates  two  vowels  which  otherwise  might  foim 
a  diphthong  ;  as,  coordinate,  zoology. 

Tmesis  separates  a  compound  word  by  inserting  a  word 
between  its  parts ;  as,  to  us  ward,  for  toward  us. 

EXERCISE. 

f*oint  out  the  figures  in  the  following  examples  :  — 
Around  'qan  Marmion  wildly  stare. 

17* 


198  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

The  1. ">  'pg  shone  o'er  fair  women  and  brave  m*n 
Did  yc  not  hear  it  ?    No  :  'twas  but  the  wind. 

Tis  mine  to  teach  th'  inactive  hand  to  reap 
Kind  nature's  bounties,  o'er  the  globe  diffus'd. 

O,  what's  the  matter  ?  what's  the  matter  ? 
What  is't  that  ails  young  Harry  Gill  ? 

A  heart  has  throbb'd  beneath  that  leathern  breast, 
And  tears  adown  that  dusky  cheek  have  rolled. 

He  led,  I  wot,  the  softest  way  to  death, 

And  taught  withouten  pain  and  strife  to  yield  the  breath. 

What  figures   would  you  employ  to  render  the  following  lines   \ar 
monious  ; — 

It  is  the  sunset  of  life  gives  me  mystical  lore. 

For  ice  have  sworn,  by  our  countries  assaulters, 
By  the  virgins  they  have  dragged  from  oui  altars 

And  every  tempest  howling  over  his  head 
Renders  the  savage  wilderness  more  wild. 


FIGURES   OF  SYNTAX. 

A  figure  of  Syntax  is  a  deviation  from  the  ordinary  con- 
struction of  a  word. 

Figures  of  Syntax  consist  in  a  defect,  an  excess,  or  a  change  in  some  of 
the  elements  of  a  sentence 

Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause, 
which  is  necessary  to  complete  the  construction  ;  as,  "  We 
were  absent  [during]  one  day." 

It  should  be  understood  that  the  words  omitted  by  this  figure  as  truly 
belong  to  the  sentence,  grammatically  considered,  as  those  which  are 
expressed.  They  are  omitted  for  rhetorical  effect,  that  is,  to  render  the 
sentence  more  agreeable  and  forcible. 

Ellipsis  generally  takes  place,  — 

1.  In  coordinate  constructions,  to  avoid  the  repetition  of 
•ome  common  part ;  as, — 

"  There  are  some  who  write,  [and  who]  talk,  [and  who]  think  so  much 
about  vice  and  [about]  virtue,  that  they  have  no  time  to  practise  either 
the  one  or  the  other." 

2.  In  certain  sul 'ordinate  constructions,  especially  those 

which  denote  comparison,  for  the  same  reason  ;  as, — 

"  Revenge  is  a  stronger  feeling  than  gratitude  [is.]"  "Our  hiil'iS  ar« 
jia  different  as  our  faces  [are.]  " 


SYNTAX — FIGURES     OF     SYNTAX.  ■       199 

3.  In  cert  tin  idiomatic  constructions  :  — 

(l.J  In  elements  of  the  first  class  —  the  subject  of  imperative  sen- 
tences;  as,  "Go  [thou.]"  "Awake  [ye.]"  The  noun  after  adjectives 
or  after  the  possessive  case  ;  as,  "The  violent  [persons]  take  it  by  force." 
"  This  book  is  mine"  i.  e.,  my  book. 

(2.)  In  elements  of  the  second  class.  The  connective  may  be  omitted. 
Examples.  The  to  before  the  indirect  object ;  as,  "  He  gave  [to]  me  a 
book."  The  to  of  the  infinitive  after  bid,  dare,  let,  make,  hear,  need,  feel,  see. 
jT;  or  unto  after  like,  near;  as,  like  [to]  his  father,  near  [to]  the  house. 
During,  over,  for,  in,  or  on,  before  nouns,  denoting  time,  the  measure  of 
distance,  magnitude,  or  excess;  as,  "  They  left  [on]  Monday."  "They 
travelled  [through]  twenty  miles." 

The  object  may  be  omitted;  as,  "The  leaves  were  scattered  around 
[us.]  "    In  such  cases,  the  preposition  is  usually  called  an  adverb. 

(3.)  In  elements  of  the  third  class.  The  connective  may  be  omitted 
in  substantive  clauses  in  the  objective ;  as,  "  My  heart  whispers  [that]  God 
is  nigh."  In  adjective  clauses  when  the  relative  is  in  the  objective;  as, 
"  The  paper  [which]  we  purchased  is  damaged."  "  The  house  [which]  we 
went  to  stands  on  a  hill." 

The  subject  and  copula  in  expressions  like  "  If  [it  is]  possible,  if  neces- 
sary, if  convenient,  when  agreeable,  while  absent,     &c. 

The  whole  clause  between  as  and  if,  as  and  though  ;  as,  "  He  seemed  as 
[he  would  seem]  if  [he  were]  deranged." 

4.  In  exclamatory  sentences,  m  responsives,  in  inscrip- 
tions, and  titles  ;  as,  "  [It  is]  strange  !  "  "  Whom  did  you 
see  ?     [1  saw]  George.'"     "  [This  is]  the  New  Testament.1' 

Pleonasm  is  the  use  of  superfluous  words ;  as, "  I  know 
thee  who  thou  art." 

Pleonasm  is  the  opposite  of  ellipsis,  and  may  be  said,  in  general,  to  take 
place  where  ellipsis  should,  but  does  not,  take  place. 

Feonasm  takes  place,  — 

(l.)  "When  the  same  idea  is  repeated  in  the  same  or  in  different  words  ; 
as,  "  Verily,  verily,  I  say  unto  you."  "  All  ye  inhabitants  of  the  world, 
and  dwellers  on  the  earth." 

(2.)  When  a  noun  is  introduced  into  a  sentence,  and  then  immediately 
represented  in  the  same  relation  by  a  pronoun ;  as,  "  Now  Harry  he  had 
long  suspected." 

(3.)  When  a  noun  or  any  other  word  is  repeated  in  the  same  relation 
for  the  purpose  of  modifying  it;  as,  "  That  great  God  whom  jou  see  me 
daily  worship  ;  —  *  —  *  —  that  God  who  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth ; 
—  —  *  —  *  —  this  God  who  has  done  all  these  great  things  —  *  —  *  —  this 
great  God,  the  Creator  of  worlds,  of  angels,  and  men,  is  your  Father  and 
Friend." 

Enallage  is  a  change  of  one  part  of  speech  for  another, 
or  some  modification  of  a  word  for  another  ;  as,  "  They  fall 
successive  [ly]  and  successive  [ly]  rise."     So  when  a  smglo 


200 


ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 


individual  says,  "  We  have  done  so  and  so,"  he  uses  the 
plural  number  for  the  singular. 

HyperbaLon  is  the  transposition  of  words ;  as,  "  While  ite 
song  rolls  the  zvoods  along." 


EXERCISE. 

Siqyply  the  words  omitted  by  ellipsis  in  the  following :  — 

Cassius.     I  am  a  soldier,  I, 

Older  in  practice,  abler  than  yourself 
To  make  conditions. 
Brutus.      Go  to  !  you're  not,  Cassius. 
Cos.  I  am. 

Bru.  I  say  yoxi  are  not. 

Write  or  repeat  the  folloioing,  leaving  oxd  all  words  which  may  be  omit' 
ted:  — 

If  it  is  possible,  I  will  come.  What  would  be  the  consequence  though 
we  tarry  ? 

Tell  what  figures  occur  in  the  folloioing  examples  :  — 

Anxiously  did  we  watch  every  movement.  Dark  burned  the  candle. 
For  llenard  close  attended  at  his  heels.  Sometimes  with  early  morn,  he 
mounted  gay.  Seven  circling  planets  we  behold.  He  speaks  as  if  he  were 
sick.     Say,  burst  they  borrowed  from  her  father's  wounds  these  drops  t 


FIGURES    OF    RHETORIC. 

A  figure  of  Rhetoric  is  a  deviation  from  the  ordiniry 
application  of  a  word  ;  it  is  commonly  called  a  trope. 

Metaphor  gives  to  an  object  the  appropriate  name  of 
another  object,  on  account  of  a  resemblance  between  them ; 
as,  "  Man  !  thou  pendulum  betwixt  a  smile  and  tear." 

Simile  is  a  formal  comparison,  introduced  by  like,  as,  01 
so ;  as,  "  He  shall  be  like  a  tree  planted  by  the  rivers  of 
water." 

An  Allegory  is  a  continued  metaphor,  forming  a  Kind  of 
parable  or  fable.  For  examples,  see  Pilgrim's  Progress. 
See  also  the  eightieth  Psalm. 

Personification  attributes  to  inanimate  objects  some  of 
the  qualities  of  living  beings;  as,  "  The  sky  saddens  with 
me  gathered  storm  " 


SYNTAX  —  FxGlRES     OF     RHETORIC  201 

Metonymy  is  a  change  of  name ;  as,  "  You  will  address 
the  chair ;  "  i.  e.,  the  president. 

Vision  represents  imaginary  objects  as  real  and  present 
to  the  senses  •  as,  — 

"  See  lofty  Lebanon  his  head  advance ; 
See  nodding  forests  on  the  mountains  dance." 

Synecdoche  is  the  use  of  a  part  for  the  whole,  or  the  whole 
for  a  part,  as  a  sail  for  a  ship,  a  roof  for  a  house,  the 
head  for  the  person. 

Irony  is  the  use  of  a  word  for  its  opposite  ;  as,  "  He  was 
as  virtuous  as  Nero  ;  "    i.  e.,  as  vile  as  Nero. 

Antithesis  is  the  placing  of  contrary  or  opposite  objects  in 
contrast ;  as,  "  Immortal,  though  no  more  ;  though  fallen, 
great" 

Hyperbole  magnifies  or  diminishes  an  object  beyond  the 
truth  ;  as,  "  Rivers  of  water  run  down  mine  eyes,  because 
they  keep  not  thy  law." 

Exclamation  is  used  to  express  some  strong  emotion  of 
the  mind ;  as,  "  O  the  depth  of  the  riches  both  of  the  wis- 
dom and  the  knowledge  of  God  ! " 

Interrogation  is  used  to  express  a  strong  affirmation  under 
the  form  of  a  question  ;  as,  "  Hath  he  said  it,  and  will  he 
not  do  it  ?  " 

Apostrophe  is  a  taming  off  from  the  subject  to  address 
some  other  person  or  thing ;  as,  "  Death  is  swallowed  up  in 
victory.  O  Death,  where  is  thy  sting  ?  O  Grave,  where  is 
thy  victory  ?  " 

Climax  is  a  series  of  members  in  a  sentence,  each  rising 
in  importance  above  the  preceding. 

EXAMPLE. 

"  What  hope  is  there  remaining  of  liberty,  if  whatever  is  their  pleasure 
it  is  lawful  for  them  to  do  ;  if  whatever  it' is  lawful  for  them  to  do,  they 
are  able  to  do  ;  if  what  they  arc  able  to  do,  I  hey  dure  to  do  ;  if  what  they 
iare  to  do,  they  really  execute;  and  if  what  they  execute  is  no  way  offen- 
sive to  you  ?" 


202  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 


EXERCISE. 

Point  out  the  figures  in  the  following :  — 

"  Yet  at  thy  call  the  hardy  tar  pursued, 
Pale,  but  intrepid ;  sad,  but  unsttbdued." 

He  has  at  last  assumed  the  sceptre.  The  power  of  appointment  is  vested 
in  the  crown.  The  garrison  was  put  to  the  sword.  In  the  sweat  of  thy 
face  shalt  thou  eat  thy  bread.  The  sea  sato  it  and  fled.  Joseph  is  a  fruit- 
ful bough.  Devotion  is  a  delicate  and  tender  plant.  A  virtuous  man. 
slandered  by  evil  tongues,  is  like  a  diamond  obscured  by  smoke.  I  will  be 
to  her  a  wall  of  fire.  What  ailed  thee,  0  thou  sea,  that  thou  fitddest  f 
They  are  swifter  than  eagles,  they  are  stronger  than  lions.  Read  1  Kings, 
xviii.  27,  and  explain  the  figure.  Canst  thou  by  searching  find  out  God  ? 
Canst  thou  find  out  the  Almighty  unto  perfection  ?  What  a  piece  of 
work  is  man!  how  noble  in  reason!  how  infinite  in  faculties!  in  action, 
ho  v.-  like  an  angel !  in  apprehension,  how  like  a  God. 


III.    IDIOMATIC    CONSTRUCTIONS. 

Note.  —  The  following  examples  are  intended  to  draw  the  attention  of  the  teach- 
er to  the  various  idiomatic  peculiarities  in  the  constructions  which  follow  certain 
words  or  forms  of  words,  and  not  to  be  a  complete  system  which  exhausts  the  subject. 

1.  The  perfect  teiises,  and  generally  the  tenses  of  the 
progressive  form,  are  followed  by  some  phrase  or  clause 
used  to  specify  the  time  to  which  they  relate;  as,  "  I  had 
finished  my  letter  before  you  came." 

2.  The  comparative  degree  is  followed,  — 

(1.)  By  an  adverbial  clause  introduced  by  than,  when  both  the  compared 
objects  are  distinctly  named  ;  as,  "  The  ash  is  taller  than  the  oak  [is.]  " 

(2.)  By  a  phrase  (preposition  of)  when  one  of  the  compared  objects  is 
distinctly  named,  and  the  other  is  involved  in  a  general  term  which  in- 
cludes both  ;  as,  "  The  ash  is  the  taller  of  the  two  trees." 

3.  The  superlative  degree  is  followed  by  a  phrase,  (prep. 
of)  and  shows  a  comparison  between  a  single  object  dis- 
tinctly named,  and  all  other  objects  with  which  it  is  com- 
pared ;  as,  "  Achilles  was  the  bravest  of  the  Greeks." 

4.  Many  adjectives,  as  able,  unable,  —  necessary,  unneces- 
sary, —  desirable,  undesirable,  —  agreeable,  disagreeable, 
&c,  are  followed  by  an  infinitive,  or  a  preposition  and  its 
object,  when  in  the  positive  degree.  When  in  the  compara- 
tive or  superlative,  they  are  also  followed  by  the  construc- 
tion required  by  the  above  rules,  (3  and  4,  above  ;)  as, 
"  George  was  unwilling  to  write"  "  George  was  more  un 
willing  to  write  than  his  sister" 

5.  The  verb  "  to  be,'    when  used  to  predicate  existence 


SYNTAX IDIOMATIC     CONSTRUCTIONS.  '203 

^and  not  as  a  copula,)  is  generally  preceded  by  the  expletive 
'  there,"  and  followed  by  its  subject ;  as,  "  There  was  light." 
When  such  a  proposition  is  abridged,  the  expletive  remains 
»s,  "  God  said,  Let  Mere  be  light."     "  There  being  no  provis 
ions,  we  were  compelled  to  leave."     "  I  am  not  sure  of  ther 
seing  a  supply." 

6.  The  verbs  tell,  teach,  say,  wish,  declare,  order,  and,  ih 
general,  those  which  denote  some  state  or  act  of  the  mind, 
>r  some  declaration  or  statement,  are  generally  followed, — 

(1.)  By  a  substantive  clause ;  as,  "  I  say,  that  he  was  angry." 
(2.)  By  a  personal  object  and  an  infinitive,  which  together  are  equivalent 
to  a  substantive  clause  abridged  ;  as,  "  I  told  him  to  stop." 

7.  It  is  always  placed  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence 
whose  subject  is  an  infinitive,  (with  or  without  its  objective 
subject,)  or  a.  substantive  clause,  when  the  infinitive  or  clause 
is  placed  after  the  predicate  ;  as,  "  For  you  to  leave  me  would 
be  unkind "  =  It  would  be  unkind  for  you  to  leave  me, 
"  That  this  measure  will  prevail  is  quite  certain  "  =  It  is 
quite  certain  that  this  measure  will  prevail. 

This  idiom  usually  prevails  when  an  objective  clause  be 
comes  the  subject  by  changing  the  preceding  verb  into  the 
passive  voice  ;  as,  "  I  believe  that  the  resources  of  this  coun- 
try will  go  on  increasing  from  year  to  year  "  =  It  is  be- 
lieved thai,  the  resources,  &c. 

Another  idiom  in  which"*' it"  introduces  a  sentence  occurs 
when  we  wish  to  bring  forward  a  person  or  thing  with  em- 
phasis. Instead  of  saying,  "  Arnold  betrayed  his  country," 
we  say,  "  It  was  Arnold  that  betrayed  his  country." 

8.  Had  before  rather,  as  liof,  and  as  well,  seems  to  be  an 
auxiliary  with  the  present  tense,  instead  of  the  past  participle 
of  the  verb  ;  as,  "  I  had  rather  be  a  dog,  and  bay  the  mccn." 
u  I  had  as  lief  go  as  stay.''''  "  You  had  as  well  stop."  Pres- 
ent usage  substitutes  would.  Still  these  expressions  are  often 
found,  and  are  to  be  disposed  of.  It  seems  most  probable 
that  what  we  call  the  present  tense  of  the  verb  was  original- 
ly an  infinitive   governed  by  had ;  as,  "  I  had  to  go"   4 


*204  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

had  to  write  ;  "  but  when  the  comparative  rather,  or  as  lief 
was  inserted,  the  "  to  "  was  dropped  ;  as,  "  I  had  rather  go," 
*'  I  had  as  lief  write"  "You  had  as  well  go."  Would,  in 
the  expressions,  "  Would  to  God,"  "  Wculd  God  it  were 
fo"  is  a  principal  verb,  equivalent  to  desire,  or  wish.  It  is 
past  in  form,  but  present  in  meaning. 

9.  The  forms  resulting  from  abridging  dependent  clauses 
alibi  d  many  idiomatic  difficulties.  Most  of  these  are  ex- 
plained under  "  Abridged  Propositions."  The  following  are 
some  of  these  forms  :  — 

(1.)  A  predicate  noun  follows  the  infinitive,  or  participle  of  the  copula 
without  a  subject,  or  with  the  subject  changed  to  the  possessive  ;  as,  "  To 
be  a  good  writer  requires  much  practice."  Here  writer  must  be  considered 
in  the  nominative,  unless  we  supply  the  words,  "Jbr  one"  before  it:  if 
such  were  the  construction,  it  would  be  in  the  objective.  "  I  have  no  fear 
of  his  being  an  idler."  Here  nothing  can  be  supplied  to  control  the  case 
of  idler.  It  was  nominative  before  the  clause  was  abridged,  and  nothing 
has  changed  its  case. 

(2.)  "  Give  me  something  to  fasten  the  door  icith."  Here  it  is  not  ap- 
parent how  with  should  be  disposed  of.  This  idiom  results  from  abridging 
the  following  proposition  in  Italics  :  "  Give  me  something  with  which  I 
may  fasten  the  door  "  =  Give  me  something  with  which  to  fasten  the 
door  =  Give  me  something  to  fasten  the  door  with  [which]. 

(3.)  Contrary  to  the  general  rule,  the  connective  of  the  dependent  clause 
is  retained  in  such  expressions ;  as,  I  know  not  what  to  do,  where  to  go, 
when  to  stop,  hoio  to  wait,  with  what  to  write,  with  which  to  remain ;  and 
in  the  above  example,  ichich,  the  subsequent  term  of  the  relation  expressed 
by  with,  mus'  be  supplied. 

10.  Some  difficulty  arises  from  the  facility  with  which,  in 
English,  a  noun,  without  change  of  form,  can  be  used  as  an 
adjective  ;  as>  "  An  iron  bar."  "  A  variety  store."  Re- 
specting such  cases,  it  should  be  observed,  — 

(1.)  That  though  the  noun  is  used  like  an  adjective,  it  is  qualified  (not 
ly  an  adverb,  as  is  the  case  with  a  real  adjective,  but)  by  an  adjective  ;  as, 
"  A  high  pressure  engine"  not  "  A  high  engine ;  "  nor  "  A  highly  pressure 
engine." 

(2.)  That  this  idiom  may  lead  to  ambigxious  expressions,  which  can  be 
avoided  only  by  making  a  compound  word  of  the  two  which  should  b  .• 
united  ;  as,  "  A  white  oak  pail."  "  A  white  mountain  moose."  Is  it  "  a 
white  oak-pail,"  or  "  a  white-oak  pail"?  "A  white  mountain-moose," 
or  "  A  white-mountain  moose  "  ?  It  often  happens  that  the  defining  noun 
is  joined  to  the  other  by  a  hyphen,  thus  forming  a  compound  noun ;  as, 
"  Barn-boor"     "  Brick-walk." 

(3.)  That  sometimes  a  noun  has  an  adjective  termination,  and  tben  both 
forms  may  be  used  as  adjectives,  yet  with  very  different  effects;  as,  "A 
woode?i  house  ;  "  "A  wood  house."  "  A  golden  harvest ;  "  "A  gold 
harvst  " 


SYNTAX  —  THE    STRUCTURE     OF     SENTENCES.  205 

(4.)  That  the  noun  thus  used  must  be  in  the  singular  number  ;  as,  "  A 
hoi'se  power,"  not  "  A  horses  power."     "  A  foot  poie,"  not  "  A  feet  pole.'' 

(•'5.)  That  this  last  rule  is  observed  even  though  a  numeral  adjective, 
which  would  otherwise  require  the  following  word  to  be  plural,  is  added 
as,  "  A  forty  horse  power,"  not  "  A  forty  horses  power." 

(6.)  That  it  is  observed  even  in  words  which,  otherwise  used,  have  no 
singular  form ;  as,  "  UcweZ-complaint,"  not  "  iJo^eis-complaint."  "  Spen- 
tacfe-maker,"  not  "  Spectacles-maker." 

11.  A  very  forcible  idiom  arises  from  the  formation  of  ar 
adjective  out  af  a  participle  combined  with  some  other  word 
as,    uninterestijig,    unimpeached,    labor-saving,   heaven-dt 
scended      These  words  must  be  regarded  as  adjectives,  an 
not  participles,  since  they  have  no  corresponding  verbs. 


IV.  THE  STRUCTURE  OF  SENTENCES. 

In  sentences  containing  more  than  one  proposition,  two 
kinds  of  structure  prevail  —  the  loose,  and  the  periodic,  or 
compact. 

A  loose  sentence  is  one  in  which  the  parts  are  related  in 
thought,  but  are  wholly  independent  of  each,  other  in  con- 
struction ;  as,  "  Three  days  they  mourned  over  Carthon  ; 
on  the  fourth,  his  father  died." 

Rem.  t.  —  The  parts  of  a  loose  sentence  are  called  its  members.  The 
members  of  a  loose  sentence  may  be  simple,  complex,  or  compound ;  as, 
'  In  the  narrow  plain  they  lie;  and  a  dim  ghost  defends  their  tomb." 
•  On  that  rising  ground,  where  the  green  turf  looks  black  with  fire,  yes- 
terday stood  a  noble  mansion  ;  the  owner  had  said  in  his  heart,  Here  will 
I  spend  the  evening  of  my  days,  and  enjoy  the  fruit  of  my  years  of  toil." 
"  My  name  shall  descend  with  mine  inheritance,  and  my  children's  children 
Bhall  sport  under  the  trees  which  I  have  planted." 

Rem.  2.  —  The  loose  sentence  is  to  be  found  chiefly  among  compound 
sentences. 

A  compact  sentence,  sometimes  called  close,  is  one  in 
which  the  parts  are  closely  united  both  in  thought  and  con- 
si  ruction  ;  as,  "  Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him." 

Hem.  1. — Compact  sentences  maybe  either  complex  or  compound ;  as, 
'«  In  order  to  succeed  in  their  enterprises,  it  is  necessary  that  they  should 
\  it  on,  at  least,  the  appearance  of  virtue."  "  Seek  ye  first  the  kingdom 
of  God  and  his  righteousness,  and  all  these  things  shall  be  added  unto 
foil  " 

18 


206  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

Rem.  2.  —  Both  loose  and  compact  sentences  may  hare  connectives  to 
combine  their  parts.  When  the  connective  is  expressed,  the  union  of  the 
parts  is  considered  closer  than  when  it  is  omitted ;  and  when  correlatives 
are  used,  the  union  is  still  closer. 

Rem.  3.  — In  uttering  a  loose  sentence,  the  voice  should  fall  at  the  end 
of  each  member '  in  uttering  a  compact  sentence,  the  voice  should  be  kept 
up  till  the  close. 

EXERCISES. 

Point  out  the  loose  and  the  compact  sentences  in  the  following  exam- 
ples :  — 

Morning  rose  in  the  east;  the  blue  waters  rolled  in  light.  If  the  war 
should  be  unsuccessful,  you  will  aggravate  existing  evils ;  if  successful, 
your  enemy  will  have  no  treasure  left  to  give  our  merchants.  Thp  first 
losses  will  be  confounded  with  much  greater,  and  be  forgotten. 

The  very  men  who  charged  the  Indian  war  on  the  detention  of  the  post* 
will  call  for  no  other  proof  than  the  recital  of  their  own  speeches.  If  1 
could  find  words  for  them,  if  my  powers  bore  any  proportion  to  my  zeal,  I 
wo*»'d  swell  my  voice  to  such  a  note  of  remonstrance,  that  it  should  reach 
Pre.  vh)g  house  beyond  the  mountains. 


PUNCTUATION.  —  THE     COMMA.  207 


PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  written  compositior  by 
means  of  points. 

Rem.  1.  —  Points,  are  used  to  separate  either  sentences  or  the  elements 
of  sentences.  The  elements,  in  by  far  the  greater  number  of  instances,  are 
not  separated  at  all.  It  is  only  when  there  is  some  peculiarity  in  the  struc- 
ture, use,  or  condition  of  an  element  that  it  is  pointed  off.  Usually,  the 
point  is  employed  where  the  position  of  the  words  may  lead  to  a  wrong 
connection  or  dependence  of  words,  and  consequently  to  a  misapprehen- 
sion of  the  author's  meaning:  thus  the  following  sentence  may  have  sev- 
eral meanings  according  to  the  punctuation.  James  Johnson  says  lie  has 
written  beautifully.  James,  Johnson  says  he  has  written  beautifully. 
James  Johnson,  says  he,  has  written  beautifully.  James  Johnson  says  he 
has  written  l<  beautifully." 

Rem.  2.  —  Although  a  pause  is  usually  made  where  a  point  is  placed, 
the  points  mark  rather  the  sense  than  the  pauses.  Sometimes  no  pause 
whatever  should  be  made  where  a  comma  is  required ;  as,  "  No,  sir." 
"Yes,  sir."  ' 

These   points  may   be  divided   into  two  classes  —  those 

which  separate  the  elements  of  a  sentence,  and  those  which 

separate  entire  sentences. 

The  following  are  the  principal  marks  used  in  punctuation :  — 

The  comma  (,),  the  semicolon  (5),  the  colon  (:),  the  dash 

(— ),  the  parenthesis  (  ),  the  period  (.),  the  interrogation 

point  (?),  and  the  exclamation  point  (!). 


I.    POINTS    USED    WITHIN    A    SENTENCE. 

The  Comma. 

The  comma  is  used  principally  to  separate  the  elements 
of  close  sentences. 

Three  rules  may  be  given  for  the  use  of  the  comma. 

Kflf  .  When  the  elements  of  a  sentence  are  simple^ 
an^  are  arranged  in  the  natural  order,  they  should  not 
be  separated  ;  but  when  any  element,  whether  simple  or 
complex,  is  transposed,  loosely  connected,  or  usei  paren- 
thetically, it  should  be  pointed  off. 


208  ENGLISH     GRAMM  1R. 


EXAMPLES. 

"  Strong  proofs,  not  a  loud  voice,  produce  conviction.  The  path  01 
virtue  is  the  path  of  pence.  He  lived,  as  he  said,  on  a  vegetable  diet. 
False  de'icacy  is  affectation,  not  politeness.  Intrinsically,  the  other 
is  the  r..'.st  valuable.  Self-denial  is  the  sacrifice  which  virtue  must 
make 

Examples  to  be  punctuated  according  to  Rule  I. 

Thy  rod  and  thy  staff  they  comfort  me.  Whoever  firmly  wills  will  be  a 
good  man.  Light  whether  it  be  material  or  spiritual  is  the  best  reformer. 
lie  who  teaches  often  learns  himself.  Cherish  true  patriotism  which  has 
its  root  in  benevolence.  Here  comes  his  body  mourned  by  Mark  Antony. 
Study  I  beseech  you  to  store  your  minds  with  the  exquisite  learning  of 
former  ages. 

(1.)  The  following  words  and  phrases  are  pointed  off  by  this  rule: 
Again,  besides,  moreover,  further,  nay,  hence,  once  more,  as  yet,  Jirst,  sec- 
oiidly,  lastly,  namely,  in  short,  in  truth,  in  fact,  in  fine,  in  general,  in  par- 
ticular, in  the  mean  time,  in  the  next  place,  on  the  contrary,  without  doubt, 
of  course,  for  the  most  part,  noio  and  then,  consequently,  accordingly,  un- 
questhmably,  indisputably,  &c,  fire. 

(2.)  The  nominative  case  independent,  and  several  of  the  interjections, 
are  separated  by  the  comma  ;  since  thoy  are  not  elements  of  the  sentence, 
and  consequently  are  not  closely  connected  ;  as,  "  My  son,  hear  the  in- 
structions of  thy  father."  "  For,  lo,  I  will  call  all  the  families  of  the 
kingdoms  of  the  north." 

(3.)  When  a  simple  element  of  the  third  class  is  not  closely  connected, 
or  used  in  a  restrictive  sense,  it  is  punctuated  by  a  comma,  though  arranged 
in  the  natural  order  ;  as,  "  He  will  go,  if  it  is  possible." 

Examples  to  be  puMiuated  by  the  subordinate  rules. 

Punctuality  is  no  doubt  a  quality  of  high  importance.  The  most  vigor- 
ous thinkers  and  writers  are  in  fact  self-taught.  Unfortunately  he  thinks 
too  highly  of  himself.  Antonio  light  my  lamp  within  my  chamber. 
Boast  not  my  dear  friends  of  to-morrow.  Come  companion  of  my  toils 
let  us  take  fresh  courage.  Where  thoughts  kindle  words  spontaneously 
flow.  Go  where  a  man  may  home  is  the  centre  to  which  his  heart  turns. 
It  were  no  virtue  to  bear  calamities  if  we  did  not.  feel  them. 

Rule  II.  When  an  element  is  complex,  and  considerably 
extended,  it  should  be  pointed  olT  by  the  comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

Remember  your  own  feelings,  in  order  that  you  may  judge  of  the  feel- 
ings  of  of  hers.  That  a  peculiar  state  of  the  mere  particles  of  the  brain 
iHoidd  bejolloioed  by  aclmnge  of  the  state  of  the  sentient  mind,  is  truly  won- 
derful. 

Examples  to  be  punctuated  according  to  Rule  II. 

Grace  of  manners  is  so  essential  to  rulers  that  whenever  it  is  neglected 
tneir  virtues  lose  a  great  degree  of  lustre.  The  more  highly  we  cultivate 
our  minds  here  the  better  shall  we  be  prepared  for  the  nobler  pursuits  of 
the  next  stages  of  our  existence.  It  had  been  better  for  them  net  to  have 
Known  the  way  of  righteousness  than  after  they  had  known  u  to  tura 
frim  the  holy  commandment  committed  to  them. 


PUNCTUATION. 


209 


(1.)  By  this  rule,  the  complex  subject  of  a  .simple  sentence,  when  long, 
should  be  separated  by  the  comma  from  the  predicate  as,  "  The  intermix- 
ture of  evil  in  society,  seems  to  exercise  the  noblest  virtues  of  the  humajr. 
soul." 

(2.)  The  clauses  of  a  complex  sentence  should  be  separated  by  tne  com- 
ma, where  tbe  subordinate  clause  is  complex,  and  is  not  used  in  a  restric- 
tive sense  ;  as,  "  We  sometimes  forget  our  faults,  when  we  are  not  reminded 
if  them."  Abridged  clauses  generally  follow  the  same  rule  as  complete 
dauses ;  as,  "  Shame  being  lost,  all  virtue  is  lost." 

(3.)  A  single  noun  in  apposition  with  another,  is  not  separated  from  it 
by  a  comma;  as,  "  Paul  the  apostle ;  "  but  when  the  noun  ir  opposition  is 
limited  by  several  words,  the  comma  should  be  inserted ;  as,  "  Paul,  the 
apostle  of  the  Gentiles." 

(1.)  When  a  sentence  contains  several  extended  adverbial  elements, 
phrases,  or  clauses,  they  should  be  separated,  by  the  comma  ;  as,  "  The  an- 
cients separated  the  corn,  from  the  ear,  by  causing  an  ox  to  trample  on  the 
sheaves. 

(5.)  A  short  expression  quoted,  or  used  as  a  quotation,  should  be  sepa- 
rated by  the  comma ;  as,  "  The  first  lesson  of  a  judicious  education  is, 
Learn  to  think  and  to  discriminate ; "  also  the  verbs,  say,  reply,  and  the  like, 
with  their  dependent  words,  introducing  a  ([notation  or  remark,  are  usually 
separated  by  the  comma ;  as,  "  Ossian  says,  That  sorrow  shades  the  soul  of 
Clessammor." 

Examples  to  be  punctuated  by  the  subordinate  rules. 

A  government  directing  itself  resolutely  and  steadily  to  the  general 
good  becomes  a  minister  of  virtue.  He  who  sees:a.  building  as  a  common 
spectator  contents  himself  with  speaking  of  it.  The  word  philosopher 
signifies  lover  of  wisdom.  The  twin  sisters  Piety  and  Poetry  are  said  to 
dwell  together.     Diogenes  the  Greek  philosopher  lived  in  a  tub. 

General  Washington  the  first  president  of  the  United  States  was  a  true 
patriot  a  genuine  lover  of  his  country.  The  wise  and  good  of  every 
name  are  with  diversity  of  gifts  but  the  same  spirit  striving  each  in  his  own 
way  to  carry  society  forward  into  a  healthier  condition  than  the  present. 

Patrick  Henry  commenced  by  saying  "  It  is  natural  to  man  to  indulge 
in  the  illusions  of  hope." 

There  is  much  truth  in  the  proverb  "  Without  pains  no  gains." 

Rule  III.  When  an  element  is  compound,  the  compo- 
nent parts  are  generally  separated  by  the  comma ;  as, "  Some 
men  sin  frequently,  deliberately,  and  presumptuously." 

EXAMPLES. 

Beauty  haunts  the  depths  of  the  earth  and  sea,  and  gleams  out  in  the 
hues  of  the  shell  and  the  precious  stone.  Speak  as  you  mean,  do  as 
you  profess,  and  perform  what  you  promise.  Has  God  provided  for  the 
poor  a  coarser  earth  a  thinner  air,  a  paler  sky  ? 

Suffering  often  calls  forth  our  best  feelings,  and  the  highest  energiei 
of  the  mind. 

Examples  to  be  punctuated  by  Rule  II. 

Great  moral  principles  pure  and  generous  dispositions   cannot  be  con 

fined  to  this  or  that  spot.     The  true  worshipper  of  beauty  sees  it  in  the 

lowliest  flower  meets  it  in  every  path  enjoys  it  every  where.     Get  justly  use 

»jbetly  distribute  cheerfully  ?nd  live  contentedly.    The  one  had  no  more 

10  * 


210  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

reason  than  the  other  to  repine  at  his  fortune  and  war  against  mankind. 
To  be  wise  in  our  own  eyes  to  be  wise  in  the  opinion  of  the  world  and  *o 
*te  wise  in  the  sight  of  our  Creator  seldom  coincide. 

^1.)  When  a  compound  element  consists  of  but  two  simple  elements, 
trie  parts  should  not  be  separated,  unless  the  conjunction  which  connects 
them  is  understood  ;  as,  "  Peter  and  John  went  up  into  the  temple."  "  A 
bold  decisive  blow  was  struck." 

(2  )  When  or  denotes  an  alternative  of  words,  and  not  ideas,  the  twc 
connected  words  should  be  separated  by  the  comma ;  as,  "  The  gulf,  or 
bay,  is  dangerous."  Nearly  allied  to  this  construction  is  that  in  which  the 
same  word  is  repeated  ;  as,  "  Verily,  verily,  I  say  unto  you." 

(3.)  Two  simple  elements,  so  connected  as  to  show  opposition  or  con- 
trast, should  be  pointed  by  the  general  rule  ;  as,  "  Though  deep,  yet  clear" 
"  Ikough  fallen,  yrcat.'" 

(4.)  If  both  elements  are  complex,  and  considerably  extended,  or  if  one 
is  complex  and  the  other  is  not,  the  comma  may  be  placed  between  them. 
This  rule  applies  particularly  to  the  compound  predicate ;  as,  "  He  left, 
and  took  his  brother  with  him." 

(o.)  "When  words  are  joined  in  pairs,  the  pairs  are  separated  from  each 
other,  but  not  the  words  composing  them;  as,  "Hope  and.  fear, pleasure 
and  pain,  diversify  our  lives." 

(6.)  When  the  conjunction  which  connects  two  elements  is  omitted, 
the  comma  takes  its  place  ;  as,  "  Thomas  is  a  plain,  honest  man."  So, 
also,  when  a  verb  is  understood,  the  comma  takes  its  place ;  as,  "  From 
law  arises  security  ;  from  security,  curiosity  ;  from  curiosity,  knowledge." 

(7.)  When  the  connected  parts  are  clauses,  whether  coordinate  or  sub 
ordinate,  and  are  closely  united,  they  should  be  separated  by  the  comma 
as,  "  Life  is  short,  and  art  is  long."     "  I  neither  knew  what  I  was,  wheri 
I  was,  nor  from  wlience  I  came." 

Examples  to  be  punctuated  by  the  subordinate  rule. 

A  healthy  body  and  a  sound  mind  should  be  preserved  as  real  blessings. 
Some  men  would  be  distinguished  in  their  occupation  or  pursuit  or  pro- 
fession or  in  the  style  of  living,  or  in  the  dignity  of  office  or  in  the  glare 
and  pride  and  pomp  of  power.  Truth  is  fair  and  artless  simple  and  sin- 
cere uniform  and  consistent.  A  wise  man  seeks  to  shine  in  himself;  a 
fool  to  outshine  others.  The  benevolent  man  is  esteemed  ;  the  penurious 
despised.  We  are  fearfully  and  wonderfully  made.  He  departed  and  hope 
departed  with  him. 


The  Colon  and  Semicolon. 

The  colon  and  semicolon  are  used  chiefly  to  separate  the 
members  of  a  loose  sentence 


EXAMPLES. 

Make  a  proper  use  of  your  time ;  for  „he  los*  of  it  can  never  be  re- 
gained. The  noblest  prophets  and  apostles  have  been  children  mce;  lisp- 
ing the  speech,  laughing  the  laugh,  thinking  the  thought  oi  boyhood. 
Stones  grow ;  vegetables  grow  and  live ;  animals  grow,  live,  and  feel 
Cowards  die  many  times  ;  the  valiant  never  taste  of  death. 

Rem.  1. — The  colon  is  now  but  little  used,  except  before  examples  fo< 


PUNCTUATION.  DASH     AND     PARENTHESIS.  SHI 

towing  tie  expressions  as  follows,  the  following  examples,  in   these  word* 
&c. ;  as;  "Perform   the  following  exercises:"  "He  used  *^iese  words 
Mr.  Presiuciit:"  &C.      It   is  also  used  to  separate  the  terms  of  a  pro> 
portion;  as,  "  A  :  B  :  :  C  :  D." 

Rem.  2.  —  When,  in  a  complex  sentence,  several  subordinate  clause* 
are  united  to  each  other,  having  a  common  dependence  upon  the  principal 
clause,  they  are  separated  by  the  semicolon  ;  as,  "  Philosophers  assert  that 
Nature  is  unlimited,  in  her  operations  ;  that  she  has  inexhaustible  treses* 
urcs  in  reserve  ;  that  knowledge  will  always  be  progressive;  and  that  fu- 
ture generations  will  continue  to  make  discoveries." 


EXERCISE. 

Insert  the  cemma,  the  semicolon,  and  the  colon  w/iere  they  'ire  ""quired  in 
the  following  examples  : — 

Never  value  yourself  upon  your  fortune  for  this  is  the  sign  of  a  weak 
mind.  Pope  had  perhaps  the  judgment  of  Drydcn  but  Dryden  certainly 
wanted  the  diligence  of  Pope.  The  groat  tendency  and  purpose  of  poetry 
is  to  carry  the  mind  above  and  beyond  the  beaten  dusty  weary  walks  of 
ordinary  life  to  lift  it  into  a  purer  element  and  to  breathe  into  it  more  pro- 
found and  generous  emotion.  Write  on  your  slates  the  following  exam- 
ple Mary  and  John  will  go.  The  great  and  good  were  there.  Endeavor 
to  excel  much  may  be  accomplished  by  perseverance. 


The  Dash  and  Parenthesis. 

The  dash  is  used  where  there  is  a  significant  pause,  an 
unexpected  transition  in  the  sentence,  or  where  a  sentence 
is  left  unfinished  ;  as,  "  He  sometimes  counsel  takes  —  and 
sometimes  snuff."     "  But  I  must  first ." 

Rem.  —  The  dash  is  now  frequently  used  instead  of  the  parenthesis  , 
as,  "  The  colonists  —  such  is  human  nature  —  desired  to  burn  the  town  in 
which  they  had  been  so  wretched." 

The  parenthesis  is  used  to  enclose  a  part  of  a  sentence 
.iot  necessary  to  the  construction,  but  in  some  way  ex- 
jdanatory  of  the  meaning  of  the  sentence  ;  as,  "  Consider 
(and  may  the  consideration  sink  deep  into  your  hearts)  the 
fatal  consequences  of  a  wicked  life." 

EXERCISE. 

Insert  the  dash  and  the  parenthesis  where  they  are  required  in  the  follow 
ng  examples :  — 

Horror  burst  the  bands  of  sleep  ;  but  my  feelings  words  are  too  weak, 
too  powerless  to  exp*ess  them.     TVe  Egyptian  style  of  architecture  see 


212  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

Dr.  Pocock,  not  his  discourses  but  his  prints  was  apparently  the  mother 
of  the  Greek.  While  they  wished  to  please,  and  why  should  they  not 
wish  it,  they  disdained  dishonorable  means.  If  thou  art  he,  so  much  re 
spec  ted  once  but,  O,  how  fallen  !  how  degraded  ! 


II.  POINTS  USED  AT  THE  CLOSE  OF  A  SENTENCE. 

The  Period. 

The  period  is  used  at  the  close  of  a  declarative  or  an  im- 
perative sentence.     It  is  also  used  to  denote  an  abbreviatior 

EXAMPLES. 

Knowledge  is  not  only  pleasant,  but  useful  and  honorable.  Let.  what 
you  have  gained  be  an  impulse  to  something  higher.  If  you  will,  you  car. 
rise.  The  age  of  MSS.  is,  in  some  instances,  known  by  dates  inserted 
in  them      I  was  invited  to  meet  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Clifford. 


EXERCISE. 

Insert  the  period  where  it  is  required  in  the  following  examples  :  — 
Truth  is  the  basis  of  every  virtue  It  is  the  voice  of  reason  Let  its  pre 
cepts  be  religiously  obeyed  Never  transgress  its  limits  Abhor  a  falsehood 
I  would  say  to  the  people,  You  cannot,  without  guilt  and  disgrace,  stop 
where  you  are  The  oration  was  delivered  by  J  L  Thompson,  Esq  The 
event  occurred  B  C  1001  To  It  II  Dana  Jun  Esq  the  well-known  author  of 
"Two  Years  before  the  Mast,"  the  community  are  greatly  indebted  Put 
the  seasons  are  not  alike  in  all  countries  of  the  same"  region,  for  the 
reasons  already  given  See  Chap  VI  §  2 11  4  p  °>30 


Interrogation  Point. 

An  interrogation  point  is  used  at  the  close  of  a  question  , 
as,  "  Who  comes  there  ?  " 

Rem.  —  When  an  interrogative  sentence  is  used  as  a  subordinate 
clause,  — 

(1.)  The  interrogation  point  is  employed  when  the  clause  is  quoted  di  ■ 
rectly ;  as,  "  He  said,  Why  do  you  weep  ?  " 

(2.)  The  ^lterrogation  point  is  not  employed  where  tie  clause  is  quoted 
fadirectly  •  as,  "  He.  asked  me  why  I  wept." 


Exclamation  Point. 

An  exclamation  point  is  used  at  the  close  of  an  exclama- 
tory sentence  ;  as  "  How  unsearchable  are  h'<  'vays  !  " 


PUJNOTUATION. OTHER     MARKS,     EIU.  '«&  13 

Keai.  —  An  exclamation  point  is  often  used  within  a  sentence,  after  an 
exelamatory  expression  or  an  interjection  ;  as,  "  O,  Jotp  Supreme!  whom 
aaen  and  gods  revere !  "     "  0  !  let  soft  pity  touch  the  mind  !  " 


EXERCISES. 

Insert  interrogation  and  exclamation  jwi7its  where  they  are  requited 
m  the  folloxcing  examples  :  — 

Daughter  of  Faith  awake  arise  illume  the  dread  unknown  the  chaos 
of  the  tomb  Whither  shall  I  turn  Wretch  that  I  am  To  what  place  shall 
I  betake  myself  O  Pascal  thou  wert  pure  in  heart  in  this  world,  and  now 
thou  art  in  full  sight  of  God.  Apostles  of  liberty  what  millions  attest  the 
authenticity  of  your  mission.  Did  she  fall  like  Lucifer,  never  to  hope 
again  To  purchase  heaven  has  gold  the  power  VVho  shall  separate  us 
from  the  love  of  Christ  What  "kill  thy  friend  who  lent  thee  money,  for 
asking  thee  for  it     The  secret  I  implore  :  out  with  it  speak  discover  utter 

Punctuate  coirectly  in  all  respects  the  following  examples  :  — 
_  What  a  piece  of  work  is  man  How  noble  in  reason  how  infinite  in  facul- 
ties in  form  and  moving  how  express  and  admirable  in  action  how  like  ;tn 
angel  in  apprehension  how  like  a  God  The  air  wraa  mild  as  summer  all 
corn  was  off  the  ground  and  the  skylarks  were  singing  aloud  by  the  way  I 
saw  not  one  at  Keswick  perhaps  because  the  place  abounds  in  birds  of 
prey  Dr  H  Marsh  F  11  S  &c  Bishop  of  Peterborough  b  1757  d  1839  As 
the  pupil  is  often  obliged  to  bend  all  his  faculties  to  the  task  before  him 
and  tears  sometimes  fall  on  the  page  he  is  studying  so  it  is  in  the  school 
of  God's  providence  there  are  hard  lessons  in  it  When  the  poor  victims 
Were  bayoneted  clinging  round  the  knees  of  the  soldiers  would  my  friend 
but  I  could  cannot  pursue  the  strain  of  my  interrogation 


OTHER  MARKS  USED  IN  WRITING. 

Brackets  ([  ])  are  used  when  a  word  or  phrase  is  intro- 
duced for  explanation  or  connection  ;  as,  "  He  [the  teacher] 
thus  explained  the  difficulty." 

The  Apostrophe  (  '  )  is  used  either  to  denote  the  possessive 
case,  or  the  omission  of  a  letter  ;  as,  "  John's."     "  O'er." 

The  Quotation  Marks  (  ""  )  are  used  to  include  a  passage 
taken  verbatim  from  some  other  author ;  as,  "He  said,  '  2 
relinquish  my  claim. '  " 

The  Asterisk  (*),  the  Obelisk  ( t ),  the  Double  Dagger  (}), 
and  the  Parallels  ( || )  are  used  to  refer  to  notes  in  the  mar- 
gin, or  at  the  bottom  of  the  page.  Sometimes  the  Section 
(  §  )  and  the  Paragraph  (  fl  )  are  used.  Also  small  letters, 
or  figures,  which  refer  to  notes  at  the  foot  of  the  page. 


214  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

The  Caret  (  A  )  is  used  in  writing  to  show  that  jsome 
letter,  word,  or  phrase  has  been  omitted  ;  as,  "  The  pencil 
lies  X  the  table." 

The  Hyphen  (  -  )  is  used  to  separate  the  parts  of  a  com* 
pound  word  ;  as,  "  Book-binder."  When  placed  at  the  end 
of  a  line,  it  shows  that  a  word  is  divided,  the  remaining  part 
being  carried  to  the  next  line. 

The   Ellipsis   (  *  *  *  )    ( )    is   used  to   denote  the 

omission    of  certain    letters   or   words;    as,   "C*  *  *  11." 
«K g." 

Th    Rrace  I  connects  a  number  of  words  with  one  cor/i- 
e  \  mon  term. 

The  Index  (  $W  )  points  to  some  remarkable  passage. 

The  Section  (  §  )  also  denotes  the  divisions  of  a  treatise. 

A  Paragraph  (fl  )  also  denotes  the  beginning  of  a  new 
subject 

The  vowel  marks  are  the  Diaeresis  (  ••  ),  placed  over  the 
second  of  two  vowels  which  are  separated  ;  the  Long 
sound  (  -  ),  placed  over  a  long  vowel  ;  the  Breve  or  Short 
sound  (v>  ),  placed  over  a  short  vowel ;  and  accents,  Grave 
(  \ ),  Acute  ( f ),  and  Circumflex  (  a  ). 

Rem.  —  The  best  practical  exercises  on  all  these  marks  and  points  will  be 
given  by  the  teacher.  Let  the  pupil  be  required  to  construct  sentences 
requiring  the  use  of  them ;  or  let  the  teacher  read  from  some  book,  any 
passage  which  demands  the  use  of  them,  iind  let  the  class  be  reo/uirexl  to 
insert  them  in  their  proper  places. 


PROSODY.  —  VERSE — FEET.  2!  i 


P  R  O  S  0  D  Y . 

Prosody  treats  of  the  laws  of  versification. 

VERSE. 

A  verse  is  a  succession  of  accented  and  unaccented  syi 
lables,  constituting  a  line  of  poetry. 

A  couplet  is  the  combination  of  two  lines  or  verses. 
triplet  consists  of  three  lines. 

A  stanza  is  the  combination  of  several  lines  forming  a 
division  of  a  poem  or  song. 

Rem.  — Verse  is  sometimes  erroneously  applied  to  a  stanza. 

Verse  is  of  two  kinds  —  rhyme  and  blank  verse. 

Rhyme  is  the  correspondence  of  the  last  sound  of  one 
'erse  to  that  of  another. 

Blank  verse  is  verse  without  rhyme. 

FEET. 

A  foot  is  a  portion  of  verse  containing  two  or  moie  syl- 
lables, combined  according  to  accent. 

Rem.  1. — The  quantity  of  a  syllable  is  the  time  employed  in  uttering 
it.     All  syllables  are  either  long  or  short. 

Rem  2.  —  In  English,  an  accented  syllable  is  considered  long ;  and  an 
unaccented,  short. 

Rem.  3.  —  A  straight  line  (  - )  over  a  syllable  shows  that  it  is  accented, 
and  a  curved  line  (  w  )  that  it  is  unaccented. 

The  principal  feet  in  English  are  the  iambus,  the  trocheet 
the  anapast,  and  the  dactyl. 

The  iambus  consists  of  a  short  and  a  long  syllable  ;  aa 
u  invite,"  "  devote"  "  benign.'''' 

The  trochee  consists  of  a  long  and  a  short  syllable  ;  as, 
"  grateful,1''  "  grievous.'1'' 

The  anapast  consists  of  two  short  syllables  and  one  long 
one  •  a«  M  incomplete  "  "  condescend." 


2  iti        *  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

Thb  dactyl  consists  of  one  long  syllable  an.i  two  short 
ones  ;  as,  "  positive"  "  loneliness" 

Rem.  1.  —  Besides  the  kinds  of  feet  mentioned  above,  four  others 
Sometimes  occur —  the  pyrrhic*  and  the  spondee,  the  amphibrach  and  the 
tribrach.  The  pyrrhic  consists  of  two  short,  and  the  spondee  sf  two  long 
syllables;  as,  "in  tht  (vale;)"  "  vain  twin."  The  amphibrach  has  three 
syllables,  of  which  the  first  and  third  are  short,  the  second  is  long;  as, 
"cdnUntmtnt.**       The  tribrach  consists    of  three   short   syllables;    as> 

Rem.  2. — These  last  four  feet  are  seldom  found  in  English  poetry. 
They  sometimes  mingle  with  other  feet,  and  give  thereby  a  pleasing 
variety;  as, 

"  Fr6m  peak  |  to  peak  |  the  rat-  |  tling  crags  |  among. 
Leaps  thi  |  live  thun-  |  der  !  not  |  from  one  |   lone  cloud." 

Here  the  first  fooi  is  a  trochee,  and  the  second  is  a  spondee.  They  cccur 
in  a  single  verse  of  an  iambic  poem. 


EXERCISES. 

What  foot  does  each  of  the  following  icords  contain:  — 
Absent,  control,  viewing,  darkness,  complete,  correct,  glory,  reproduce, 
indite,  reconstruct,  compose,  gloriously,  positive,  acquiesce,  reunite,  beau- 
tiful, sweetest,  comforter,  overcome,  churlishness,  nourishing,  intercede, 
foolishness. 

Piejix  one  or  more  words  to  the  following,  so  as  to  make  a  phrase  consist- 
ing of  two  iambic  feet,  thus :  — 

"  A    new   supply.     defeat.      disgrace.      accord. 

proclaims.      commends.     divine.     entreata. 

believes. 

A.  line  consisting  of  one  foot  is  called  monometer ;  of  two, 
dimeter ;  of  three,  trimeter ;  of  four,  tetrameter  ;  of  five, 
pentameter  ;  of  six,  hexameter  ;  of  seven,  heptameter. 

Rem.  —  When  a  syllable  is  wanting,  the  line  is  said  to  be  catalecti-c  ; 
when  the  measure  is  full,  the  line  is  acatalectic  ;  when  there  is  a  redundant 
?y liable,  it  is  called  hypermeter. 


SCANNING. 

Scanning  consists  in  dividing  a  verse  into  the  feet  which 
compose  it. 

IAMBIC   VERSI. 

t    /<*#*/.•«  ,/  ut*  foe*  —  monometer  :  — 
They  go 
To  sow. 


IROSODY. IAMBIC     V1SRSE.  217 

2.  Iambic  of  tico  feat  —  dimeter  :  — 

To  me  |  the  rose 
No  longer  glows. 

3.  Iambic  of  three  feet  —  trimeter :  — 

No  roy  |  al  pomp  |  adorns 
This  Iving  of  righteousness. 

4.  Iambic  of  four  feet  —  tetrameter  :  — 

And  cold  )  er  still  |  the  winds  |  did  blow, 
And  darker  hours  of  night  came  on. 

0.  Iambic  of  five  feet — pentameter:  — 

On  rift-  |  ed  rocks,  |  the  drag-  |  fin's  late  |  abodes, 
The  green  reed  trembles,  and  the  bulrush  nods. 

6.  Iambic  of  six  feet  —  hexameter  :  — 
His  heart  |  is  sad,  |  his  ho 
He  sits  and  mourns  in  silent  grief  the  Iiv 


His  heart  |  is  sad,  |  his  hope  |  is  g6ne,  |  his  light  I  rs  passed ; 

geringday. 


7.  Iambic  of  seven  feet  —  heptamcter  :  — 

Th£  lof-  |  ty  hill,  j  the  hum-  |  ble  lawn,  )  wrth  count-  |  less  beau-  I 

ties  shine. 
The  silent  grove,  the  solemn  shade,  proclaim  thy  power  divine. 

Iambic  of  five  feet  is  called  heroic  verse  ;  thai  cf  six  feet 
is  called  Alexandrine. 

Iambic  of  seven  feet  is  commonly  divided  into  two  lines  — 
the  first  containing  four  feet,  the  second  three.  This  is 
called  common  metre ;  as, 

The  lofty  hill,  the  humble  lawn, 

With  countless  beauties  shine  ; 
The  silent  grove,  the  solemn  shade, 

Proclaim  thy  power  divine. 

Tn  long  metre,  each  line  has  four  iambic  feet ;  in  short 
metre,  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  lines  contain  three  iambic 
feet,  the  third  four. 

Each  species  of  iambic  verse  may  have  one  additional 
short  syllable,  thus  :    — 

1.  Relent-  |  Tng. 

'2.  Upon  |  a  moun-  |  tain 

3.  When  on  |  her  Ma-  |  ker's  bo-  j  som. 

4.  First  this  |  large  par-  |  eel  brings  |  you  tl-  |  dings. 

5.  Each  sub-  |  stance  of  \  a  grief  |  hath  twen-  |  ty  shad-  |  fiws. 

t>   Thine  eye  |  Jove's  light-  |  nlng  seems    I    thy  voice  |  his  dread-  |  ftU 

thfin-  |  drr. 
7.   How    gai-   |  ly  6-   |  xvr   fell  I  and   f<"n  |  y6n  spArts-  I  m;"n   light  j  is 

dash-  |  ing  ! 

19 


218  ENGLISH  GRAMMA*. 

TROCHAIC  FERSE. 

1 .  Trochaic  of  one  foot :  — 

Changing 
Ranging. 

2  T)  ochaic  of  two  feet :  — 

Fancy  |  viewing, 
Joys  ensuing. 

3  Trochaic  of  three  feet :  — 

Go  where  |  glory  |  waits  thee. 
But  when  fame  elates  thee. 

4 .   Trochaic  of  four  feet :  — 

Rounda  |  holy  |  calm  dif-  |  fusing, 
Love  of  peace  and  lonely  musing. 

b.   Trochaic  of  five  feet :  — 

All  that  |  walk  6n  |  foot  or  |  ride  In  |  chari6ts, 
All  that  dwell  in  palaces  or  garrets. 

6.   Trochaic  of  six  feet :  — 

On  a  |  mountain  |  stretched,  be-  |  neath  a  I  hoary  |  willtiw, 
Lay  a  shepherd  swain,  and  viewed  the  rolling  billow. 

In  trochaic  verse,  the  accent  is  placed  upon  the  odd  syil* 
hies ;  in  iambic,  on  the  even. 

Trochaic  verse  may  take  an  additional  long  syllable  ;  as, 

1.     Where  we  |  may 
Think  aud  pray. 

2.     And  at  |  morn  they  |  play, 
In  the  foaming  spray. 

3.  Heaving  |  upward  |  to  the  |  light. 

4.  O'er  the  [  past  too  |  fondly  |  wander-  |  ing. 

5.    Reared  'mid  |  fauns  and  |  fairies,  |  knew  he  |  no  com-  |  peers. 
6.     Casting  |  down  their  |  golden  |  crowns  a-  |  round  the  |  glassy  |  asa. 


ANAPiESTIC    VERSE. 

i .  A  napecstic  of  one  foot :  — 

But  In  vain 
They  complain. 

2.   A  napeestic  of  two  feet :  — 

Where  the  sun  |  loves  td  pause 
With  so  fond  a  delay. 

3    Anaptfstic  of  three  feet :  — 

From  the  cen-  |  tre,  all  round  j  t5  the  sea, 
I'm  lord  of  the  fowl  and  the  brute. 


PROSODY. POETIC  PAUSES.  219 

4.  Anapassvc  of  four  feet : — 

At  the  close  |  6f  the  day,  |  when  the  ham-  |  let  Is  still, 
And  mortals  the  sweets  of  fo-rgetfulness  prove. 

In  anapaestic  verse,  the  accent  falls  on  every  third  syllable. 
The  first  foot  of  an  anapaestic  verse  may  be  an  iambus  ;  as, 

And  mot-  |  tals  the  sweets  |  6f  forget-  |  fulness  prove. 

DACTYLIC   VEKSE. 

1.  Dactylic  of  one  foot :  — 

Cheerfully, 
Fearfully. 

2.  Dactylic  of  two  feet :  — 

Free  from  anx-  |  iety, 
Care  and  satiety. 

3    Dactylic  of  three  feet :  — 

Wearing  a-  |  way  In  his  |  yoiithfulness, 
Loveliness,  beauty,  and  truthfulness. 


Boys  will  an-  I  ticlpate,  I  lavish,  and  I  dlsslpilte 

Ant" 


4  Dactylic  of  four  feet ;  — 
rs  will  an-  I  1 
that  your  busy  pate  hoarded  with  care. 

Few  poems  are  perfectly  regular  in  their  feet.  The  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  feet  are  often  mingled  in  the  same  verse, 
t.'ius  :  — 

I  ctime,  |  I  come ;  |  yS  have  cfdled  j  me  long  ; 

I  come  |  S'er  the  moun-  j  tains  with  light  |  and  song. 

POETIC  PAUSES. 

Besides  the  pauses  required  by  the  sense  or  grammati- 
cal construction  of  verse,  two  pauses  —  the  Jinal  and  caswcil 
—  may  also  occur. 

The  final  pause  occurs  at  the  end  of  each  line,  whether 
the  sense  requires  it  or  not. 

The  casural  pause  occurs  within  the  line  itself,  and  is 
only  a  suspension  of  the  voice  ;  as, 

"  Ask  for  what  end  —  the  heavenly  bodies  shine." 


220  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


EXERCISES. 

ConJncct  a  line  to  i  hyme  with  the  following  :  — 

"  The  soldier  marched  upon  the  burning  sand* ' 


Soft  the  breeze  in  yonder  vale," 
The  leaves  are  falling  one  by  one," 


t/Uji**.  «ri?ig,  and  tell  what  kind  of  verse  it  is  ;  — 

When  all  thy  mercies,  0  my  God  ! 

My  rising  soul  surveys, 
Transported  with  the  view,  I'm  lost 

In  wonder,  love,  and  praise." 

•    from  Greenland's  icy  mountains, 

From  India's  coral  strand, 
Whore  Afric's  sunny  fountains 

Roll  down  their  golden  sand  ; 
From  many  an  ancient  river, 

From  many  a  palmy  plain, 
Thev  call  us  to  deliver 

Their  land  from  error's  chain." 

14  The  morn  is  up  again,  the  dewy  morn, 

With  breath  all  incense,  and  with  cheek  all  Dlooia- 
Laughing  the  clouds  away,  with  playful  scorn, 
And  living  as  if  earth  contained  no  tomb, — 
And  glowing  into  day  :  we  may  resume 
The  march  of  our  existence  :  and  thus  I, 

Still  on  thy  shores,  fair  Leman !  may  find  room 
And  food  for  meditation,  nor  pass  by 
Much  that  may  give  us  pause,  if  pondered  fittingW  *' 

''  Hail,  holy  light,  offspring  of  heaven  first  born, 
Or  of  th*  eternal  co-eternal  beam  ! 
May  I  express  thee  unblamed  ?  since  God  is  light, 
And  never  but  in  unapproached  light 
Dwelt  from  eternity,  dwelt  then  in  thee, 
Bright  elllucnce  of  bright  essence  increate. 
Or  hear'st  thou  rather  pure  ethereal  stream, 
Whose  fountain  who  shall  tell  ?  " 

M  Ye  nymphs  of  Solyma  !  begin  the  song  ; 
To  heavenly  themes  sublimer  strains  belong. 
The  mossy  fountains  and  the  sylvan  shades, 
The  dreams  of  Hindus  and  tl\'  Aonian  maids. 
Delight  no  more  !  0  thou  my  voice  inspire, 
Who  ttuche^  lsa,'.^.h's  hallowed  lips  with  fire  1" 


VINIS, 


^tlU 


Ttf  37347 


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